Tajikistan

Tajikistan

Tajikistan ( i/tɑːˈdʒiːkɨstɑːn/, /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/, or /tæˈdʒiːkiːstæn/; Тоҷикистон [tɔd͡ʒikɪsˈtɔn]), officially theRepublic of Tajikistan (Tajik: Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон, Çumhuriyi Toçikiston; Russian: Республика Таджикистан,Respublika Tadzhikistan), is a mountainous landlocked country in Central Asia. TOSHIBA Satellite A110 Series Laptop Keyboard

It borders Afghanistan to the south,Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, and China to the east. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit Baltistan inPakistan are separated from Tajikistan by the narrow Wakhan Corridor. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Most of Tajikistan's population belongs to the Persian-speaking Tajik ethnic group, who share language, culture and history with Afghanistan and Iran. Once part of the Samanid Empire, Tajikistan became a constituent republic of theSoviet Union in the 20th century, known as the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik SSR). Mountains cover over 90% of this Central Asian republic. HP Pavilion dv6-3035sl Laptop Keyboard

After independence, Tajikistan suffered from a devastating civil war which lasted from 1992 to 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. Trade in commodities such as cotton, aluminium and uranium has contributed greatly to this steady improvement. HP Pavilion DV7-4053 Laptop Keyboard

The territory of what is now Tajikistan has been inhabited continuously since 4000 BC.[citation needed] It has been under the rule of various empires throughout history, for the longest period being part of the Persian Empire. It was originally called Neb for a short period of time, before being given the name Tajikistan. SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard

Further, Sir George Abraham Grierson says that the speech of Badakshan was a Ghalcha until about three centuries ago when it was supplanted by a form of Persian.[7] Thus, the ancient Kamboja, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

probably included the Badakshan, Pamirsand northern territories including the Yaghnobi region in the doab of the Oxus and Jaxartes.[8] On the east it was bounded roughly by Yarkand and/or Kashgar, on the west by Bahlika (Uttaramadra), on the northwest by Sogdiana, on the north byUttarakuru, on the southeast by Darada, and on the south by Gandhara. SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard

Numerous Indologists locate original Kamboja in Pamirs and Badakshan and the Parama Kamboja further north, in the Trans-Pamirian territories comprising Zeravshan valley, north up parts of Sogdhiana or Fargana — in the Sakadvipa or Scythia of the classical writers.[9]

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in pre-Buddhist times (7th–6th century BCE), the parts of modern Tajikistan including territories as far as Zeravshan valley in Sogdiana formed parts of ancient Kamboja and the Parama Kamboja kingdoms when it was ruled by the Kambojas till it became part of Persian Achaemenid Empire. After the Persian Empire was defeated by Alexander the Great, the region became the northern part of Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

From the last quarter of 4th century BCE until the first quarter of the 2nd century BCE, it was part of the Bactrian Empire, from whom it was passed on to Scythian Tukharas and hence became part of Tukharistan. Lenovo 0A62075 Laptop Keyboard

Contact with the Chinese Han Dynasty was made in the 2nd century BCE, when envoys were sent to the area of Bactria to explore regions west of China.

Arabs brought Islam in the 7th century CE.[citation needed] The Samanid Empire supplanted the Arabs and enlarged the cities ofSamarkand and Bukhara, which became the cultural centers of Tajiks (both of which are now in Uzbekistan). SONY VAIO VGN-CR210EL Laptop Keyboard

The Mongols would later take partial control of Central Asia, and later the land that today comprises Tajikistan became a part of the Emirate of Bukhara. A small community of Jews, displaced from the Middle East after the Babylonian captivity, migrated to the region and settled there after 600 BCE, though the majority of the recent Jewish population did not migrate to Tajikistan until the 20th century. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to spread into Central Asia during the Great Game. Between 1864 and 1885 it gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan from today's border with Kazakhstan in the north to theCaspian Sea in the west and the border with Afghanistan in the south. Tajikistan was eventually carved out of this territory, which historically had a large Tajik population. HP 608558-001 Laptop Keyboard

After the overthrow of Imperial Russia in 1917, guerrillas throughout Central Asia, known as basmachi, waged a war againstBolshevik armies in a futile attempt to maintain independence. The Bolsheviks prevailed after a four-year war, in whichmosques and villages were burned down and the population heavily suppressed. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Soviet authorities started a campaign of secularization, practicing Muslims, Jews, and Christians were persecuted,[citation needed] and mosques, churches, and synagogues[which?][dubious – discuss] were closed.

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The predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR. Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russiansamong Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%.[10] Some 120,000 inhabitants of Tajikistan died during World War II.[11]

In terms of living conditions, SONY 148024421 Laptop Keyboard

education and industry Tajikistan was behind the other Soviet Republics. In the 1980s, it had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR,[12] the lowest percentage of households in the two top per capita income groups,[13] and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people.[14] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

By the late 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights. Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990.[citation needed] The following year, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence. HP Envy 17-2077ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The first nation to establish an embassy in Dushanbe was Iran, which was also one of the first countries to immediately recognize Tajikistan as an independent state in 1991.

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The nation almost immediately fell into a civil war that involved various factions fighting one another; these factions were often distinguished by clan loyalties. The non-Muslim population, particularly Russians and Jews, fled the country during this time because of persecution, increased poverty and better economic opportunities in the West or in other former Soviet republics. TOSHIBA Satellite Pro C650-EZ1515D laptop keyboard

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Emomalii Rahmon came to power in 1994, defeating former prime minister Abdumalik Abdullajanov in a November presidential election with 58% of the vote.[15] The elections took place shortly after the end of the war, and Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation. The estimated dead numbered over 100,000. SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard

Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside of the country.[16] In 1997, a ceasefire was reached between Rahmon and opposition parties (United Tajik Opposition).

Peaceful elections were held in 1999, HP Pavilion dv6-2140ef laptop keyboard

though they were criticized by opposition parties and foreign observers. Rahmon was re-elected with 98% of the vote. Elections were held again in 2006, with Rahmon winning a third term in office with 79% of the vote in a field of five candidates. Several opposition parties boycotted the election and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe was critical of it, although observers from the Commonwealth of Independent States claimed the elections to be legal and transparent. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

Rahmon's government came under criticism from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) in October 2010 for its censorship and repression of the media. The OSCE claimed that the Tajik Government censored Tajik and foreign websites and instituted tax inspections on independent printing houses that lead to the cessation of printing activities for a number of independent newspapers.[17] SONY VAIO VGN-AR230G laptop keyboard

Russian border troops were stationed along the Tajik-Afghan border until summer 2005. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, French troops have been stationed at the Dushanbe Airport in support of air operations of NATO's International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. United States Army and Marine Corpspersonnel periodically visit Tajikistan to conduct joint training missions of up to several weeks duration. GATEWAY MG2 laptop keyboard

The Government of India rebuilt the Ayni Air Base, a military airport located 15 km southwest of Dushanbe, at a cost of $70 million, completing the repairs in September 2010.[18] It is now the main base of the Tajikistan air force. There have been talks with Russia concerning use of the Ayni facility,[19] and Russia continues to maintain a large base on the outskirts of Dushanbe and operate at least one military hospital in the capital city. DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

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In 2010, there were concerns among Tajik officials that Islamic militarism in the east of the country was on the rise following the escape of 25 militants from a Tajik prison in August, an ambush that killed 28 Tajik soldiers in the Rasht Valley in September,[20] and another ambush in the valley in October that killed 30 soldiers,[21] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

followed by fighting outside Gharm that left 3 militants dead.[22] To date the country's Interior Ministry asserts that the central government maintains full control over the country's east, and the military operation in the Rasht Valley was concluded in November 2010.[23] However, fighting erupted again in July 2012.[24] TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

Almost immediately after independence, Tajikistan was plunged into a civil war that saw various factions, allegedly backed by Russiaand Iran[citation needed], fighting one another. All but 25,000 of the more than 400,000 ethnic Russians, who were mostly employed in industry, fled to Russia. By 1997, the war had cooled down, and a central government began to take form, with peaceful elections in 1999. HP Pavilion dm3-1020CA Laptop Keyboard

"Longtime observers of Tajikistan often characterize the country as profoundly averse to risk and skeptical of promises of reform, a political passivity they trace to the country’s ruinous civil war," Ilan Greenberg wrote in a news article in The New York Timesjust before the country's November 2006 presidential election.[25] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Tajikistan is officially a republic, and holds elections for the Presidency and Parliament. It is, however, a one party dominant system, where the People's Democratic Party of Tajikistan routinely has a vast majority in Parliament. Emomalii Rahmon has held the office of President continually since November 1994. HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard

The parliamentary elections in 2005 aroused many accusations from opposition parties and international observers that President Emomalii Rahmon corruptly manipulates the election process. The most recent elections, in February 2010, saw the ruling PDPT lose four seats in Parliament, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

yet still maintain a comfortable majority.Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe election observers said the 2010 polling "failed to meet many key OSCE commitments" and that "these elections failed on many basic democratic standards."[26][27] The government insisted that only minor violations had occurred, which would not affect the will of the Tajik people.[26][27] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Freedom of the press is officially guaranteed by the government, although independent press outlets remain restricted, as does a substantial amount of web content. According to the Institute for War & Peace Reporting, access is blocked to local and foreign websites including avesta.tj, Tjknews.com, ferghana.ru and centrasia.ru and journalists are often obstructed from reporting on controversial events. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

 In practice, no public criticism of the regime is tolerated and all direct protest is severely suppressed and does not get reported in the local media.[28]

The presidential election held on November 6, 2006 was boycotted by "mainline" opposition parties, including the 23,000-member Islamic Renaissance Party. Four remaining opponents "all but endorsed the incumbent", Rahmon.[25] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Tajikistan has given Iran its support in Iran's membership bid to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, after a meeting between the Tajik President and the Iranian foreign minister.[29]

Tajikistan consists of 4 administrative divisions. These are the provinces (viloyat) of Sughd and Khatlon, Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

the autonomous province of Gorno-Badakhshan (abbreviated as GBAO), and the Region of Republican Subordination (RRP – Raiony Respublikanskogo Podchineniya in transliteration from Russian or NTJ – Ноҳияҳои тобеи ҷумҳурӣ inTajik; formerly known as Karotegin Province). Each region is divided into several districts, HP Pavilion dv3-2310er Laptop Keyboard

 (Tajik: Ноҳия, nohiya orraion), which in turn are subdivided into jamoats (village-level self-governing units) and then villages (qyshloqs). As of 2006, there were 58 districts and 367 jamoats in Tajikistan.[30] TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard

Tajikistan is landlocked, and is the smallest nation in Central Asia by area. It lies mostly between latitudes 36° and 41° N (a small area is north of 41°), and longitudes 67° and 75° E (a small area is east of 75°). Compaq Presario CQ56-103EG laptop keyboard

It is covered by mountains of the Pamir range, and more than fifty percent of the country is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) above sea level. The only major areas of lower land are in the north (part of the Fergana Valley), and in the southern Kofarnihon and Vakhsh river valleys, which form the Amu Darya. Dushanbe is located on the southern slopes above the Kofarnihon valley. HP Pavilion dv5-1080el laptop keyboard

Tajikistan was the poorest republic of the Soviet Union and is the poorest country in Central Asia as well as in the former Soviet Union today. The current economic situation remains fragile, largely owing to corruption, uneven economic reforms, TOSHIBA Satellite P300-1FC laptop keyboard

and economic mismanagement. With foreign revenue precariously dependent upon remittances from migrant workers overseas and exports of aluminium and cotton, the economy is highly vulnerable to external shocks. In FY 2000, international assistance remained an essential source of support for rehabilitation programs that reintegrated former civil war combatants into the civilian economy, SONY VAIO VGN-FS415E laptop keyboard

thus helping keep the peace. International assistance also was necessary to address the second year of severe drought that resulted in a continued shortfall of food production.

In 2006, GDP per capita of Tajikistan was 85% of 1990s level,[31] while the population has increased from 5.3 million in 1991 to 7.3 million in 2009. HP Pavilion dv3-2320tx laptop keyboard

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On August 21, 2001, the Red Cross announced that a famine was striking Tajikistan, and called for international aid for Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Tajikistan's economy grew substantially after the war. HP Compaq G50-123NR laptop keyboard

The GDP of Tajikistan expanded at an average rate of 9.6% over the period of 2000–2007 according to the World Bank data. This improved Tajikistan's position among other Central Asian countries (namely Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), which seem to have degraded economically ever since.[32] HP Pavilion DV6-6B00 laptop keyboard

Tajikistan is an active member of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO).

In 2007 the Anzab tunnel was completed, connecting the previously hard to access Northern part of the country to the capitalDushanbe has been labeled as part of the new Silk Road. It is part of a road under construction that will connect Tajikistan to Iran and the Persian Gulf through Afghanistan. HP Pavilion DV7-3180us laptop keyboard

In 2004 a bridge between Afghanistan and Tajikistan was built, improving the country's access to South Asia. The bridge was built by the United States.[33]

The primary sources of income in Tajikistan are aluminium production, cotton growing and remittances from migrant workers.[34] HP Pavilion dv6-2146so laptop keyboard

Aluminium industry is represented by the state-ownedTajik Aluminum Company - the biggest aluminium plant in Central Asia and one of the biggest in the world.[35]

Tajikistan's rivers, such as the Vakhsh and the Panj, have great hydropower potential, and the government has focused on attracting investment for projects for internal use and electricity exports. Tajikistan is home to the Nurek, HP Pavilion dv6-2108sa laptop keyboard

the highest dam in the world.[36] Lately, Russia's RAO UES energy giant has been working on the Sangtuda-1 hydroelectric power station (670 MW capacity) commenced operations on 18 January 2008.[37][38] Other projects at the development stage include Sangtuda-2 by Iran, Zerafshan by the Chinese company SinoHydro, and the Rogun power plant that, at a projected height of 335 metres (1,099 ft), SAMSUNG R518 laptop keyboard

  would supersede the Nurek Dam as highest in the world if it is brought to completion[39][40]CASA 1000 project will transmit 1000 MW of surplus electricity from Tajikistan to Pakistan with power transit through Afghanistan. The total length of transmission line is 750 km while the project is planned to be on Public-Private Partnership basis with the support of WB, IFC, ADB and IDB. The project cost is estimated to be around US$ 865 million.[41] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Other energy resources include sizable coal deposits and smaller reserves of natural gas and petroleum.

Foreign remittance flows from Tajik migrant workers abroad, mainly in Russia, has become by far the main source of income for millions of Tajikistan's people and represents additional 36.2% of country's GDP directly reaching the poverty-stricken population.[42] SONY Vaio PCG-K35 Laptop Keyboard

According to some estimates about 20% of the population lives on less than US$1.25 per day.[43] Migration from Tajikistan and the consequent remittances have been unprecedented in their magnitude and economic impact. Tajikistan has achieved transition from a planned to a market economy without substantial and protracted recourse to aid (of which it by now receives only negligible amounts), TOSHIBA NB200 Laptop Keyboard

and by purely market-based means, simply by exporting its main commodity of comparative advantage — cheap labor.[44] The World Bank Tajikistan Policy Note 2006 concludes that remittances have played an important role as one of the drivers of Tajikistan's robust economic growth during the past several years, have increased incomes, and as a result helped significantly reduce poverty.[45] SONY 148044221 Laptop Keyboard

Drug trafficking is the major illegal source of income in Tajikistan as it is an important transit country for Afghan narcoticsbound for Russian and, to a lesser extent, Western European markets; some opium poppy is also raised locally for the domestic market.[46] However, with the increasing assistance from international organizations, such as UNODC, and cooperation with the US, Russian, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

EU and Afghan authorities a level of progress on the fight against illegal drug-trafficking is being achieved.[47]

Tajikistan holds third place in the world for heroin and raw opium confiscations (1216.3 kg of heroin and 267.8 kg of raw opium in the first half of 2006).[48][49] Drug money corrupts the country's government; SONY AEGD1E00010 Laptop Keyboard

according to some experts the well-known personalities that fought on both sides of the civil war and have held the positions in the government after the armistice was signed are now involved in the drug trade.[46] UNODC is working with Tajikistan to strengthen border crossings, provide training, and set up joint interdiction teams. It also helped to establish Tajikistani Drug Control Agency.[50] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Since the collapse of the USSR, there has been a significant and growing trend of Tajiks migrating abroad for jobs and seeking refuge. In 2010, remittances from Tajik labour migrants totaled an estimated 2.1 billion US dollars, an increase from 2009. SAMSUNG N148 Laptop Keyboard

Tajikistan has a population of 7,349,145 (July 2009 est.)[3] Tajiks who speak the Tajik language (a variety of Persian) are the main ethnic group, although there is a sizable minority of Uzbeks and Russians, HP AEUT5U00010 Laptop Keyboard

whose numbers are declining due to emigration.[51] In 1989, ethnic Russians in Tajikistan made up 7.6% of the population.[52] The Pamiris of Badakhshan are considered to belong to the larger group of Tajiks. All citizens of Tajikistan are called Tajiks.[3] HP AETT9U00010 Laptop Keyboard

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The official and vernacular language of Tajikistan is Tajik although Russian is routinely used in business and communication. The use of Russian in official documents has been ruled out in 2009[53] although the Constitution still mentions it as the "language for inter-ethnic communication".HP Mini 110-3001tu Laptop Keyboard

Despite its poverty, Tajikistan has a high rate of literacy due to the old Soviet system of free education, with an estimated 99.5% of the population having the ability to read and write.[3] The majority of the population follow Sunni Islam. There is also a sizeable minority of Ismailis.

Bukharan Jews had lived in Tajikistan since the 2nd century BC, but today almost none are left. Dell Inspiron 8100 Laptop Keyboard

There is also a small population of Yaghnobi people who have lived in the mountainous district of Sughd Viloyat for many centuries. The German population in Tajikistan was 38,853 in 1979.[54] Nearly one million Tajik men worked abroad in 2009.[55] More than 70% of the female population lives in traditional villages.[56] HP Mini 210-1014TU Laptop Keyboard

Despite repeated efforts by the Tajik government to improve and expand health care, the system remains extremely underdeveloped and poor, with severe shortages of medical supplies. The state's Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare reported that 104,272 disabled people are registered in Tajikistan (2000). HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

This group of people suffers most from poverty in Tajikistan. The government of Tajikistan and the World Bank considered activities to support this part of the population described in the World Bank's Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.[57] Public expenditure on health was at 1% of the GDP in 2004.[58] SONY VAIO PCG-FX770K laptop keyboard

Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 66.38 years in 2012.[59] The infant mortality rate is approximately 37 deaths per 1,000 children in 2012.[60] In the early 2000s, there were 203 physicians per 100,000 people.[58] Tajikistan is the only country in world where polio is on the increase. From zero cases in 2008 and 2009, 458 confirmed cases have been reported for 2010 (of 976 cases worldwide).[citation needed] SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard

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Historically, Tajiks and Persians come from very similar stock, speaking variants of the same language and are related as part of the larger group of Iranian peoples. The Tajik language is the mother tongue of around 80% of the citizens of Tajikistan. The main urban centers in today's Tajikistan include Dushanbe (the capital), Khujand, Kulob, Panjakent and Istaravshan. There are also Uzbek,Kyrgyz and Russian minorities. SONY VAIO VGN-NW50JB laptop keyboard

The Pamiri people of Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the southeast, bordering Afghanistan and China, though considered part of the Tajik ethnicity, nevertheless are distinct linguistically and culturally from most Tajiks. In contrast to the mostly SunniMuslim residents of the rest of Tajikistan, HP Mini 110-1033cl Laptop Keyboard

the Pamiris overwhelmingly follow the Ismaili sect of Islam, and speak a number ofEastern Iranian languages, including Shughni, Rushani, Khufi and Wakhi. Isolated in the highest parts of the Pamir Mountains, they have preserved many ancient cultural traditions and folk arts that have been largely lost elsewhere in the country. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The Yaghnobi people live in mountainous areas of northern Tajikistan. The estimated number of Yaghnobis is now about 25,000. Forced migrations in the 20th century decimated their numbers. They speak the Yaghnobi language, which is the only direct modern descendant of the ancient Sogdian language. Lenovo Thinkpad X220i Laptop Keyboard

Tajikistan artisans created the Dushanbe Tea House, which was presented in 1988 as a gift to the sister city of Boulder, Colorado.[61]

In 2010, a Tajik citizen Nilufar Sherzod became Miss United Nations, representing Tajik culture.[62] HP G61-420SL Laptop Keyboard

Tajikistan's mountains provide many opportunities for outdoor activities, such as biking, rock climbing, skiing, snowboarding, hiking, and mountain climbing. Facilities are limited so tourists must expect to be largely self-sufficient and plan carefully. Mountain climbing and hiking tours to the Fann and Pamir Mountains, including the 7,000 m peaks in the region, are seasonally organized by local and international alpine agencies. SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard

Football is the most popular sport in Tajikistan. The Tajikistan national football team competes in the FIFA and AFC leagues. It also hosts many football clubs.

The Tajikistan Cricket Federation was formed in 2012 as the governing body for the sport of cricket in Tajikistan. It was granted affiliate membership of theAsian Cricket Council in the same year. TOSHIBA 48.N5601.001A Laptop Keyboard

Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school has been officially recognized by the government since 2009.[64] Tajikistan considers itself asecular state with a Constitution providing for freedom of religion. The Government has declared two Islamic holidays, Id Al-Fitrand Idi Qurbon, as state holidays. According to a 2009 U.S. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

State Department release, the population of Tajikistan is 98% Muslim, (approximately 95% Sunni and 3% Shia).[65] The remaining 2% of the population are followers of Russian Orthodoxy, a variety of Protestant denominations, Catholicism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. A great majority of Muslims fast during Ramadan, SONY VAIO VGN-N325QE/W Laptop Keyboard

although only about one third in the countryside and 10% in the cities observe daily prayer and dietary restrictions. Relationships between religious groups are generally amicable, although there is some concern among mainstream Muslim leaders[who?] that minority religious groups undermine national unity. HP G42-164LA Laptop Keyboard

There is a concern for religious institutions becoming active in the political sphere. The Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP), a major combatant in the 1992–1997 Civil War and then-proponent of the creation of an Islamic state in Tajikistan, constitutes no more than 30% of the government by statute. Membership in Hizb ut-Tahrir,  HP G42-245BR Laptop Keyboard

 a party which today aims for a nonviolent overthrow of secular governments and the unification of Tajiks under one Islamic state, is illegal and members are subject to arrest and imprisonment.[66] Numbers of large mosques appropriate for Friday prayers are limited and some[who?] feel this is discriminatory. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ360P/C laptop keyboard

By law, religious communities must register by the State Committee on Religious Affairs (SCRA) and with local authorities. Registration with the SCRA requires a charter, a list of 10 or more members, and evidence of local government approval prayer site location. Religious groups who do not have a physical structure are not allowed to gather publicly for prayer. Failure to register can result in large fines and closure of place of worship. There are reports that registration on the local level is sometimes difficult to obtain.[67] HP COMPAQ NC6120 laptop keyboard

The Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik: Республикаи Советии Социалистии Тоҷикистон Respublikai Sovetii Sotsialistii Tojikiston; Russian: Таджикская Советская Социалистическая Республика Tadzhikskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika), also known as the Tajik SSR for short, Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 laptop keyboard

was one of the 15 republics that made up theSoviet Union. Located in Central Asia, the Tajik SSR was created on 5 December 1929 as a national entity for theTajik people within the Soviet Union. It succeeded the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik ASSR), which had been created on 14 October 1924 as a part of the predominantly Turkic Uzbek SSR in the process of national delimitation in Soviet Central Asia. On 9 September 1991, HP Pavilion dv6-3351sf laptop keyboard

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Tajik SSR declared independence from the Soviet Union and was renamed the Republic of Tajikistan. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the state ceased to exist on 6 November 1994 with the adoption of the new Constitution of Tajikistan

One of the new states created in the process of national delimitation of Soviet Central Asia in October 1924 was theUzbek Soviet Socialist Republic – Uzbek SSR or Soviet Uzbekistan. HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard

Soviet Tajikistan was created at the same time within the predominantly Turkic Uzbek SSR as an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik ASSR) – one rank below aSoviet Socialist Republic in USSR geopolitical hierarchy. The new autonomous republic included what had been easternBukhara and had a population of about 740,000, out of a total population of nearly 5 million in the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic as a whole. HP Pavilion dv6-2055so laptop keyboard

Its capital was established in Dyushambe (today's Dushanbe), which had been a village of 3,000 in 1920. In December 1929, Tajik ASSR was detached from the Uzbek SSR and given full status as a Soviet Socialist Republic – Tajik SSR. At that time, its capital was renamed Stalinabad and the territory that is now northern Tajikistan (Sughd Province) was added to the new republic. Even with the additional territory, HP G72-262NR laptop keyboard

the Tajik SSR remained the smallest Central Asian republic.

With the creation of a Tajik republic defined in national terms came the creation of institutions that, at least in form, were likewise national. The first Tajik-language newspaper in Soviet Tajikistan began publication in 1926. ACER Aspire One D150-1Bk laptop keyboard

New educational institutions also began operation at about the same time. The first state schools, available to both children and adults and designed to provide basic education, opened in 1926. The central government also trained a small number of Tajiks for public office, either by putting them through courses offered by government departments or by sending them to schools in the Uzbek SSR. SONY 148044221 laptop keyboard

Under Soviet rule, the Tajik SSR experienced some economic and social progress. However, living standards in the republic were still among the lowest in the Union. Most still live in rural qishlaqs, settlements that were composed of 200 to 700 one-family houses built along a waterway.

Persian (Persian: فارسیHP Pavilion G7-1075DX laptop keyboard

Fārsi [fɒːɾˈsiː]) is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran (Persia) (locally referred to as Farsi or Parsi), Afghanistan(officially known as "Dari Persian" since 1958 for political reasons[3]), Tajikistan (officially known as "Tajik" since the Soviet era),[4] and other countries which historically came under Persian influence. HP Pavilion G4-1050TU laptop keyboard

The Persian language is classified as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language ofSassanid Persia, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Persian Empire in the Achaemenidera.[5][6][7] Persian is a pluricentric language and its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages.[8]  HP NSK-H7A01 laptop keyboard

There are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran,Afghanistan and Tajikistan. For centuries Persian has also been a prestigious cultural language in Central Asia,South Asia, and Western Asia.[9] Persian is used as a liturgical language of Islam in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. Lenovo Thinkpad X220 laptop keyboard

Persian has had a considerable, mainly lexical influence on neighboring languages, particularly the Turkic languages in Central Asia, Caucasus, and Anatolia, neighboring Iranian languages, as well as Armenian, and Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu. It also exerted some influence on Arabic, particularly Iraqi Arabic andKhuzestani Arabic, while borrowing much vocabulary from it after the Muslim conquest of Persia.[5][8][10][11][12][13] HP Pavilion dv6-3160ez laptop keyboard

With a long history of literature in the form of Middle Persian before Islam, Persian was the first language in Muslim civilization to break through Arabic’s monopoly on writing, and the writing of poetry in Persian was established as a court tradition in many eastern courts.[9] Some of the famous works of Persian literature are theShahnameh of Ferdowsi, works of Rumi, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Divan of Hafiz and poems of Saadi. SAMSUNG NP-NB30-KP01 laptop keyboard

Persian, the more widely used name of the language in English historically, is an anglicized form derived fromLatin *Persianus < Latin Persia < Greek Πέρσις Pérsis, a Hellenized form of Old Persian Parsa. According to theOxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century.[20] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi.[21] Farsi is the arabicized form of Pārsi, due to a lack of the 'p' phoneme in Standard Arabic (i.e., the 'p' was replaced with an 'f').[22][23] The origin of the nameFarsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars is, of course, the arabicized form of Pârs. In English, this language has historically been known as "Persian", though "Farsi" has also gained some currency. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

According to the OED, the term Farsi was first used in English in 1926, while Parsi dates to 1790.[21] "Farsi" is encountered in some linguistic literature as a name for the language, used both by Iranian and by foreign authors.[24] The Academy of Persian Language and Literature has declared that the name "Persian" is more appropriate, SONY VAIO VGN-NR21E/S Laptop Keyboard

as it has the longer tradition in the western languages and better expresses the role of the language as a mark of cultural and national continuity.[25] Some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of "Farsi" in their articles.[26][27] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code "fa", as its coding system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name "Persian" (code "fas") for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan. This consists of the individual languages Dari (Afghan Persian) and Iranian Persian.[28][29][30] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

Currently, VOA, BBC, DW, and RFE/RL use "Persian Service" for their broadcasts in the language. RFE/RL also includes a Tajik service, and an Afghan (Dari) service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, and many of the leading scholars of Persian language.[31] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Old Persian evolved from Proto-Iranian as it evolved in the Iranian plateau's southwest. The earliest dateable example of the language is the Behistun Inscription of the Achaemenid Darius I (r. 522 BC–ca. 486 BC). Although purportedly older texts also exist (such as the inscription on the tomb of Cyrus II at Pasargadae), these are actually younger examples of the language. Old Persian was written in Old Persian cuneiform, a script unique to that language and is generally assumed to be an invention of Darius I's reign. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

After Aramaic, or rather the Achaemenid form of it known as Imperial Aramaic, Old Persian is the most commonly attested language of the Achaemenid age. While examples of Old Persian have been found wherever the Achaemenids held territories, the language is attested primarily in the inscriptions of Western Iran, DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

in particular in Parsa "Persia" in the southwest, the homeland of the tribes that the Achaemenids (and later the Sassanids) came from.

In contrast to later Persian, written Old Persian had an extensively inflected grammar, with eight cases, each declension subject to both gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and number (singular, dual, plural). HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

The complex conjugation and declension of Old Persian yielded to the structure of Middle Persian in which the dual number disappeared, leaving only singular and plural, as did gender. Middle Persian used postpositions to indicate the different roles of words, for example an -i suffix to denote a possessive "from/of" rather than the multiple (subject to gender and number) genitive caseforms of a word. HP Mini 210-1070NR Laptop Keyboard

Although the "middle period" of the Iranian languages formally begins with the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the transition from Old to Middle Persian had probably already begun before the 4th century. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

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 However, Middle Persian is not actually attested until 600 years later when it appears in Sassanid era (224–651) inscriptions, so any form of the language before this date cannot be described with any degree of certainty. Moreover, as a literary language, Middle Persian is not attested until much later, to the 6th or 7th century. And from the 8th century onwards, Middle Persian gradually began yielding to New Persian, with the middle-period form only continuing in the texts of Zoroastrian tradition. HP Mini 110-1199EV laptop keyboard

The native name of Middle Persian was Parsig or Parsik, after the name of the ethnic group of the southwest, that is, "of Pars", Old Persian Parsa, New PersianFars. This is the origin of the name Farsi as it is today used to signify New Persian. Following the collapse of the Sassanid state, Parsik came to be applied exclusively to (either Middle or New) Persian that was written in Arabic script. From about the 9th century onwards, HP Pavilion dv6-2143ca laptop keyboard

as Middle Persian was on the threshold of becoming New Persian, the older form of the language came to be erroneously called Pahlavi, which was actually but one of the writing systems used to render both Middle Persian as well as various other Middle Iranian languages. That writing system had previously been adopted by the Sassanids (who were Persians, i.e. from the southwest) from the preceding Arsacids (who were Parthians, i.e. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

from the northeast). While Rouzbeh (Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa, 8th century) still distinguished between Pahlavi (i.e. Parthian) and Farsi (i.e. Middle Persian), this distinction is not evident in Arab commentaries written after that date. HP Pavilion DV6-1108sl laptop keyboard

Gernot Windfuhr considers new Persian as an evolution of the Old Persian language and the Middle Persian language[2] but also states that none of the known Middle Persian dialects is the direct predecessor of the [New] Persian [35][36] Professor. Ludwig Paul states: "The language of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of continuous historical development from Middle to New Persian"[37] TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8832 laptop keyboard

New Persian developed from the 8th century on as an independent literary language.[39] Upon the decline of the Caliphateat Baghdad in the ninth century a.d. began the re-establishment of Persian national life and Persians laid the foundations for a renaissance in the realm of letters. New Persian was born in Bactria through the adaptation of the spoken form of Sassanian Middle Persian court language called Dari. The cradle of the Persian literary renaissance lay in the Greater Khorasan region of Afghanistan.[40] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

The mastery of the newer speech having now been transformed from Middle- into New Persian was already complete during three princely dynasties of Iranian origin Tahirid (820–872), Saffarid (860–903) and Samanid (874–999), and could develop only in range and power of expression.[40]

Abbas of Merv is mentioned as being the earliest minstrel to chant verse in the newer Persian tongue and after him the poems of Hanzala Badghisi were among the most famous between the Persian-speakers of the time.[41] HP Envy 17-2077ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The first poems of the Persian Language, a language historically called Dari, have emerged inKhorasan.[42][dubious – discuss]. The first significant Persian poet was Rudaki. He flourished in the 10th century, when the Sāmānids were at the height of their power. His reputation as a court poet and as an accomplished musician and singer has survived, although little of his poetry has been preserved. HP Envy 17-1190nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Among his lost works is versified fables collected in Kalilah va Dimnah.[9]

The language spread geographically from the 11th century on and was the medium through which among others, Central Asian Turks became familiar with Islam and urban culture. New Persian was widely used as a transregional lingua franca, HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard

a task for which it was particularly suitable due to its relatively simple morphological structure and this situation persisted until at least 19th century.[39] In the late Middle Ages, new Islamic literary languages were created on the Persian model: Ottoman, Chaghatay and Urdu, which are regarded as "structural daughter languages" of Persian.[39]  HP Mini 110-3105tu laptop keyboard

The Islamic conquest of Persia marks the beginning of the new history of Persian language and literature. This period produced world class Persian language poets and the language served, for a long span of time, as the lingua franca of the eastern parts of Islamic world and South Asia. It was also the official and cultural language of many Islamic dynasties, including Samanids, Buyids, Tahirids, Ziyarids, the Mughal Empire, HP Pavilion DV3560ev laptop keyboard

Timurids, Ghaznavid, Seljuq,Khwarezmids, Safavid, Afsharids, Zand, Qajar, Ottomans and also many Mughal successor states such as the Nizams etc. For example, Persian was the only oriental language known and used by Marco Polo at the Court of Kublai Khan and in his journeys through China.[43] COMPAQ Presario V3132TU laptop keyboard

The heavy influence of Persian on other languages can still be witnessed across the Islamic world, especially, and it is still appreciated as a literary and prestigious language among the educated elite, especially in fields of music (for example Qawwali) and art (Persian literature). After the Arab invasion of Persia, Persian began to adopt many words from Arabic and as time went by, a few words were even taken from Turko-Mongol languages under the Mongol Empire and Turco-Persian society. TOSHIBA Satellite A15-SP1002 laptop keyboard

For five centuries prior to the British colonization, Persian was widely used as a second language on the Indian subcontinent[citation needed][dubious – discuss]. It took prominence as the language of culture and education in several Muslim courts on the subcontinent and became the sole "official language" under the Mughal emperors. Beginning in 1843, though, English gradually replaced Persian in importance on the subcontinent.[44] SONY VAIO VGN-AR270 laptop keyboard

Evidence of Persian's historical influence there can be seen in the extent of its influence on the languages of the Indian subcontinent, as well as the popularity that Persian literature still enjoys in that region. Words borrowed from Persian are still commonly used in Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu, also historically konwn as Hindustani. HP G61-420CA laptop keyboard

All these three varieties are based on the classic Persian literature and its literary tradition. There are also several local dialects from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan which slightly differ from the standard Persian. Hazaragi (in Central Afghanistan and Pakistan), Herati (in Western Afghanistan), Darwazi (in Afghanistan and Tajikistan), TOSHIBA Satellite L675D-S7015 laptop keyboard

Tehrani (in Iran, the basis of standard Iranian Persian) and Dehwari (in Pakistan) are examples of these dialects. Persian-speaking peoples of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan can understand one another with a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility,[45]give or take minor differences in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar – much in the same relationship as shared between British and American English. SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard

Historically, Persian has distinguished length: Early New Persian possessed a series of five long vowels (/iː/, /uː/, /ɒː/, /oː/ and /eː/) along with three short vowels /æ/, /i/ and /u/. At some point prior to the sixteenth century within the general area that is today encompassed by modern Iran, /eː/ and /iː/ merged into /iː/, and /oː/ and /uː/merged into /uː/. Thus, the older contrasts such as shēr "lion" vs. shīr "milk," Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

and rūd "river" vs rōd "bow-string" were lost. There are exceptions to this rule and in some words, "ē" and "ō" are preserved or merged into the diphthongs [eɪ] and [oʊ] (which are descendents of the diphthongs [æɪ] and [æʊ] in Early New Persian), instead of merging into /iː/ and /uː/. Examples of this exception can be found in words such as [roʊʃæn] (bright). ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

However, in the eastern varieties, the archaic distinction of /eː/ and /iː/ (respectively known as Yā-ye majhūl and Yā-ye ma'rūf) is still preserved, as well as the distinction of /oː/ and /uː/ (known as Wāw-e majhūl and Wāw-e ma'rūf). On the other hand, in standard Tajik, the length distinction has disappeared and /iː/ merged with /i/, and /uː/ with/u/.[47] Therefore, contemporary Afghan dialects are the closest one can get to the vowel inventory of Early New Persian. SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard

According to most studies on the subject (e.g. Samareh 1977, Pisowicz 1985, Najafi 2001), the three vowels which are traditionally considered long (/i/, /u/, /ɒ/) are currently distinguished from their short counterparts (/e/, /o/, /æ/) by position of articulation, rather than by length. However, there are studies (e.g. Hayes 1979,  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Windfuhr 1979) which consider vowel length to be the active feature of this system, i.e. /ɒ/, /i/, and /u/ are phonologically long or bimoraic whereas /æ/, /e/, and /o/ are phonologically short or monomoraic. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

There are also some studies which consider quality and quantity to be both active in the Iranian system (e.g. Toosarvandani 2004). This view offers a synthetic analysis which includes both quality and quantity, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-SP4132 Laptop Keyboard

often suggesting that modern Persian vowels are in a transition state between the quantitative system of classical Persian and a hypothetical future Persian which will eliminate all traces of quantity, and retain quality as the only active feature. HP 535689-001 Laptop Keyboard

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The length distinction is nevertheless strictly observed by careful reciters of classic-style poetry, for all varieties (including the Tajik).

While having a lesser influence on Arabic[11] and other languages of Mesopotamia and its core vocabulary being of Middle Persian origin,[8] New Persian contains a considerable amount of Arabic lexical items,[5][10][12] HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

which were Persianized[13] and often took a different meaning and usage than the Arabic original. Persian loanwords of Arabic origin especially include Islamic terms. The Arabic vocabulary in other Iranic, Turkic and Indic languages are generally understood to have been copied from New Persian.[56] HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard

John R. Perry in his article "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" estimates that about 40 percent of an everyday vocabulary of 20,000 words in current Persian, and more than 50 percent of the vocabulary of classical and modern Persian literature, are of Arabic origin. The text frequency of these loan words is generally lower and varies by style and topic area. It may approach 25 percent of a text in literature.[57] ASUS A8M Laptop Keyboard

Among the Arabic loan words, relatively few (14 percent) are from the semantic domain of material culture, while a larger number are from domains of intellectual and spiritual life.[58] Most of the Arabic words used in Persian are either synonyms of native terms or could be glossed in Persian.[59] DELL V119525BS1 Laptop Keyboard

The inclusion of Mongolian and Turkic elements in the Persian language should also be mentioned,[60] not only because of the political role a succession of Turkic dynasties played in Iranian history, but also because of the immense prestige Persian language and literature enjoyed in the wider (non-Arab) Islamic world, which was often ruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background. Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

The Turkish and Mongolian vocabulary in Persian is minor in comparison to that of Arabic and these words were mainly confined to military, pastoral terms and political sector (titles, administration, etc.).[61] New military and political titles were coined based partially on Middle Persian (e.g. Artesh for army instead of Qoshun, Sarlashkar, DaryaBaan, etc.) in the 20th century. Persian has likewise influenced the vocabularies of other languages, especially other Indo-Iranian languages like Urdu and to a lesser extent Hindi, etc., as well as Turkic languages like Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai language, HP G72-a10SV Laptop Keyboard

Tatar language, Turkish,[62] Turkmen, Azeri[63] and Uzbek, Afro-Asiatic languages like Assyrian and Arabic,[64]and even Dravidian languages especially Telugu and Brahui. Persian has also had a significant lexical influence, via Turkish, on Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian/Serbo-Croatian, particularly as spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina. LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 Laptop Keyboard

Use of occasional foreign synonyms instead of Persian words can be a common practice in everyday communications as an alternative expression. In some instances in addition to the Persian vocabulary, the equivalent synonyms from multiple foreign languages can be used. For example, in Iranian colloquial Persian (but not in Afghanistan or Tajikistan), SONY VAIO VGN-FZ220E/B Laptop Keyboard

the phrase "thank you" may be expressed using the French word merci (stressed however on the first syllable), the hybrid Persian-Arabic word motešakkeram (motešakker being merciful in Arabic and -am meaning I am in Persian), or by the pure Persian word sepāsgozāram. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

Modern Iranian Persian and Afghan Persian are written using a modified variant of the Arabic alphabet (see Persian alphabet), which uses different pronunciation and additional letters not found in Arabic. Tajik Persian, as used in Tajikistan, is typically written in a modified version of the Cyrillic alphabet. There are also Persian Romanizations like Desphilic, Unipersand Fingilish/Pinglish for writing Persian using Latin alphabet. LENOVO 25-011427 Laptop Keyboard

After the conversion of Persia to Islam (see Islamic conquest of Iran), it took approximately 150 years before Persians adopted the Arabic script in place of the older alphabet. Previously, two different scripts were used, Pahlavi, used for Middle Persian, and the Avestan alphabet (in Persian, Dîndapirak or Din Dabire—literally: religion script), used for religious purposes, primarily for the Avestan language but sometimes for Middle Persian. HP Mini 110-3105tu Laptop Keyboard

In modern Persian script, vowels that are referred to as short vowels (a, e, o) are usually not written; only the long vowels (â, i, u) are represented in the text, so words distinguished from each other only by short vowels are ambiguous in writing:kerm "worm", karam "generosity", kerem "cream", and krom "chrome" are all spelled "krm" in Persian. The reader must determine the word from context. HP G62-371DX Laptop Keyboard

The Arabic system of vocalization marks known as harakat is also used in Persian, although some of the symbols have different pronunciations. For example, an Arabic damma is pronounced [ʊ~u], while in Iranian Persian it is pronounced [o]. This system is not used in mainstream Persian literature; it is primarily used for teaching and in some (but not all) dictionaries. DELL 1R28D Laptop Keyboard

It is also worth noting that there are several letters generally only used in Arabic loanwords. These letters are pronounced the same as similar Persian letters. For example, there are four functionally identical 'z' letters (ز ذ ض ظ), three 's' letters (س ص ث), two 't' letters (ط ت), etc.

The International Organization for Standardization has published a standard for simplified transliteration of Persian into Latin, TOSHIBA P205-S6267 Laptop Keyboard

ISO 233-3, titled "Information and documentation – Transliteration of Arabic characters into Latin characters – Part 3: Persian language – Simplified transliteration"[67] but the transliteration scheme is not in widespread use. HP Probook 4515S Laptop Keyboard

Another Latin alphabet, based on the Uniform Turkic alphabet, was used in Tajikistan in the 1920s and 1930s. The alphabet was phased out in favour of Cyrillicin the late 1930s.[65]

Fingilish is the name given to texts written in Persian using ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is most commonly used in chat, HP Mini 110-3098nr Laptop Keyboard

emails and SMS applications. The orthography is not standardized, and varies among writers and even media (for example, typing 'aa' for the [ɒ] phoneme is easier on computer keyboards than on cellphone keyboards, resulting in smaller usage of the combination on cellphones).

UniPers, short for the Universal Persian Alphabet (Fârsiye Jahâni) is a Latin-based alphabet popularized by Mohamed Keyvan, who used it in a number of Persian textbooks for foreigners and travellers.[68]  FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

The International Persian Alphabet (Pársik) is another Latin-based alphabet developed in recent years mainly by A. Moslehi, a comparative linguist.[69]

Persá is yet another Latin-based alphabet that has been recently[when?] developed using new characters to represent sounds unique to the Persian language.

Desphilic is also a romanization which uses ordinary Latin character set for romanization of Persian. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

Gilgit–Baltistan (Shina/Urdu/Burushaski: گلگت بلتستان, Balti: གིལྒིཏ་བལྟིསྟན, formerly known as the Northern Areas[4]) is the northernmost territory of Pakistan.[5] It borders the territory of Azad Kashmir to the south, the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, the Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan to the north, the Xinjiang autonomous region of China to the east and northeast and the Jammu and Kashmir state of India to the southeast. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

Together with Azad Kashmir, it forms part of the disputed Kashmir region, which has been the subject of conflict between India and Pakistan since the two countries' independence and partition in 1947.[5][6] HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard

Gilgit–Baltistan is an autonomous self-governing region that was established as a single administrative unit in 1970, formed by the amalgamation of the Gilgit Agency, the Baltistan region and the former princely states of Hunza andNagar. It covers an area of 72,971 km² (28,174 mi²) and is highly mountainous. It has an estimated population approaching 1,000,000. Its capital city is Gilgit (population 216,760). TOSHIBA Satellite L505D-S6948 Laptop Keyboard

The territory was part of the Delhi Sultanate until it fell to the Mughal Empire in the early half of the 16th century. By 1757, suzerainty of the region was obtained from the Mughals by Ahmad Shah Durrani under an agreement[7] and became part of Afghanistan[8] (also known as the Durrani Empire)[9][10][11] until Ranjit Singh invaded and took control from theAfghans in 1819.[12] It became a princely state with the name "Jammu and Kashmir" around 1847. After the partition of British India in 1947, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Jammu and Kashmir initially remained an independent state. After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, Pakistani control was established on territories captured by Pakistan to the north and west of the cease-fire line. In 1970, the name "Northern Areas" (today's Gilgit–Baltistan, 72,971 km²) was applied to the areas that had previously been known as the Gilgit Agency and Baltistan. The name "Northern Areas" ACER Aspire 2023WLMi Laptop Keyboard

was actually first used by the United Nationsto refer to the northern areas of Kashmir. A small part of the Northern Areas, the Shaksgam tract, was provisionally ceded by Pakistan to China in 1963. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21S Laptop Keyboard

The territory of present-day Gilgit–Baltistan became a separate administrative unit in 1970 under the name Northern Areas, formed by the amalgamation of the Gilgit Agency, the Baltistan District of the Ladakh Wazarat, and the states ofHunza and Nagar. It presently consists of seven districts, has a population approaching one million, and an area of approximately 28,000 square miles (73,000 km2), and shares borders with Pakistan, China, Afghanistan, and India. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

While ruled by Pakistan since 1947, it had never been formally integrated into the Pakistani state and does not participate in Pakistan's constitutional political affairs until 2009.[13][14] On 29 August 2009, the Gilgit-Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order, 2009, was passed by the Pakistani cabinet and later signed by the President of Pakistan. The order granted self-rule to the people of Gilgit-Baltistan, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

by creating, among other things, an electedGilgit-Baltistan Legislative Assembly. Gilgit–Baltistan thus gained de facto province-like status without constitutionally being a province.[13][15] Officially, Pakistan has rejected Gilgit–Baltistani calls for further integration on the grounds that it would prejudice its international obligations over the Kashmir dispute. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Some militant Kashmiri nationalist groups, such as the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front, claim Gilgit–Baltistan as a part of a future independent Kashmir rather than as a future integral part of Pakistan.[16] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

On September 29, 2009, the Pakistani prime minister, while addressing a huge gathering in Gilgit–Baltistan, announced a multi-billion-rupee development package aimed at the socio-economic uplifting of the people of the area. Development projects are slated to include the areas of education, health, agriculture, tourism, and the basic needs of life.[17][18] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard

An attempt in 1993 by the High Court of Azad Jammu and Kashmir to annex Gilgit–Baltistan was quashed by the Supreme Court of Pakistan, after protests by the predominantly Shia population of Gilgit–Baltistan, who feared domination by the Sunni Kashmiris.[16] HP Mini 110-3501tu Laptop Keyboard

Gilgit–Baltistan borders the Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan to the northwest, China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region to the northeast, the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir to the south and southeast, the Pakistan-administered Azad Jammu and Kashmir to the south, and Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province to the west. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ220 Laptop Keyboard

Gilgit–Baltistan is home to five of the "eight-thousanders" and to more than fifty peaks above 7000 meters. Gilgit andSkardu are the two main hubs for expeditions to those mountains. The region is home to some of the world's highest mountainranges. The main ranges are the Karakoram and the western Himalayas. The Pamir mountains are to the north, and the Hindu Kushlies to the west.  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Amongst the highest mountains are K2 (Mount Godwin-Austen) and Nanga Parbat, the latter being one of the most feared mountains in the world.

Three of the world's longest glaciers outside the polar regions are found in Gilgit–Baltistan: the Biafo Glacier, theBaltoro Glacier, and the Batura Glacier. There are, in addition, several high-altitude lakes in Gilgit–Baltistan: SONY VAIO VGN-CS160J/W laptop keyboard

The Deosai Plains, are located above the tree line and constitute the second-highest plateau in the world at 4,115 meters (14,500 feet)after Tibet. The plateau lies east of Astore, south of Skardu and west of Ladakh. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP0C laptop keyboard

The area was declared as a national park in 1993. The Deosai Plains cover an area of almost 5,000 square kilometres. For over half the year (between September and May), Deosai is snow-bound and cut off from rest of Astore and Baltistan in winters. The village of Deosai lies close to Chilum chokki and is connected with the Kargil district of Ladakh through an all-weather road. TOSHIBA Satellite M105-S3004 laptop keyboard

There are more than 50,000 pieces of rock art (petroglyphs) and inscriptions all along the Karakoram Highway in Gilgit–Baltistan, concentrated at ten major sites between Hunza and Shatial. The carvings were left by various invaders, traders, and pilgrims who passed along the trade route, as well as by locals. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard

The earliest date back to between 5000 and 1000 BCE, showing single animals, triangular men and hunting scenes in which the animals are larger than the hunters. These carvings were pecked into the rock with stone tools and are covered with a thick patina that proves their age. The ethnologist Karl Jettmar has pieced together the history of the area from various inscriptions and recorded his findings in Rock Carvings and Inscriptions in the Northern Areas of Pakistan[20] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

and the later released Between Gandhara and the Silk Roads – Rock Carvings Along the Karakoram Highway.[21] Many of these carvings and inscriptions will be inundated and/or destroyed when the planned Basha-Diamir dam is built and the Karakoram Highway is widened.

The climate of Gilgit–Baltistan varies from region to region, surrounding mountain ranges creates sharp variations in weather. Compaq Presario CQ71-410EP laptop keyboard

The eastern part has the moist zone of the western Himalayas, but going toward Karakoram and Hindu Kush, the climate dries considerably.[22]

There are towns like Gilgit and Chilas that are very hot during the day in summer, yet cold at night, and valleys like Astore, Khaplu, Yasin, Hunza, and Nagarwhere the temperatures are cold even in summer. SAMSUNG N150 laptop keyboard

The economy of the region is primarily based on a traditional route of trade through the historic "Silk Road." The China Trade Organization was the leading economic forum through which most of barter trade activity made a phenomenal change in the general economic outlook of the area, which, being the remotest region under Pakistani control, was neglected for over a quarter of a century. SONY VAIO VGN-FS485B laptop keyboard

The participation of all ethnic groups and the active force behind this activity, the legendary economist of the area Ashraf Khan, brought a great change in the region. Later, the establishment of a chamber of commerce and the Sost dry port(in Gojal Hunza) are milestones. The rest of the economy is shouldered by mainly agriculture and tourism. Agricultural products are wheat, corn (maize), barley, and fruits. SONY VAIO VGN-FS215B laptop keyboard

Tourism is mostly in trekking and mountaineering, and this industry is growing in importance.[23][24]

In early September 2009, Pakistan signed an agreement with the People's Republic of China for a major energy project in Gilgit–Baltistan which includes the construction of a 7,000-megawatt dam at Bunji in the Astore District.[25] Compaq Presario CQ62-215DX laptop keyboard

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