Mongolia

Mongolia

Mongolia i/mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ (Mongolian:  Монгол улс (help·info)) is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It borders Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest city, is home to about 45% of the population. Mongolia's political system is a parliamentary republic. HP Hp Envy 17-2077ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Gökturks and others. In 1206 Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire, and his grandson Kublai Khanconquered China to establish the Yuan Dynasty. After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of constant internal conflict and occasional raids on the Chinese borderlands. HP Mini 110-1120SL Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Mongolia came under the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. At the end of the 17th century, all of Mongolia had been incorporated into the area ruled by the Qing Dynasty. During the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, but had to struggle until 1921 to firmly establish de facto independence from the Republic of China, and until 1945 to gain international recognition. HP G62-b10ST laptop keyboard

The country came under strong Russian and Soviet influence; in 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was declared, and Mongolian politics began to follow the same patterns as the Soviet politics of the time. After thebreakdown of communist regimes in Eastern Europe in late 1989, Mongolia saw its own Democratic Revolution in early 1990, which led to a multi-party system, a new constitution in 1992, and transition to a market economy.  FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 laptop keyboard

At 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the 19th largest and the most sparsely populatedindependent country in the world, with a population of around 2.75 million people. It is also the world's second-largest landlocked country after Kazakhstan. The country contains very little arable land, as much of its area is covered by steppes,  Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

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with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Approximately 30% of the population are nomadic or semi-nomadic. The predominant religion in Mongolia is Tibetan Buddhism, and the majority of the state's citizens are of Mongol ethnicity, although Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities also live in the country, especially in the west. About 20% of the population live on less than US$1.25 per day.[8]Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade regimes.[12] HP Mini 110-3004tu laptop keyboard

Sites such as Tsagaan Agui (White Cave) in Bayankhongor Province show thatHomo erectus inhabited Mongolia from 800,000 years ago.[13] Modern humans reached Mongolia approximately 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic. The Khoid Tsenkher Cave[14] in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown and red ochre paintings (20,000 years ago) of mammoths, lynx, bactrian camels and ostriches, earning it the nickname "the Lascaux of Mongolia". The Mal'ta Venus (21,000 years ago) testifies to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia, though Mal'ta is now part of Russia. COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard

Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC) such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag and Rashaan Khad predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia as it became the dominant lifestyle. Horse-riding nomadism is first seen in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo culture(3500–2500 BC) which stretched to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC.[15] Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more and more developed with the later Okunev Culture (2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture(2300–1000 BC) and Karasuk culture (1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include deer stones, keregsur kurgans, square slab tombs and rock paintings. SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard

Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic it always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism, which may have first been introduced from the west or arose independently in the region. The population during the Copper Age has been described as paleomongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west.[14] SONY VAIO VGN-FS940 laptop keyboard

Tocharians (Yuezhi) and Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30-to-40 year-old man with blond hair and was found in the Altai, Mongolia.[16] As horse nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. Guifang, Shanrong, Donghu) into China during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046SONY VAIO VGN-FS195VP laptop keyboard

Mongolia, since prehistoric times, has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to prominence. The first of these, the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together to form a confederation byModu Shanyu in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the Qin Dynasty, forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China, itself being guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during marshal Meng Tian's tenure, SONY VAIO VGN-FS730 laptop keyboard

as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC-93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire(93–234) which also ruled more than the entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), ofXianbei provenance, ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the Göktürks (555–745) whose empire was even bigger (laid siege to Panticapaeum, present-day Kerch, in 576). They were succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by the Kyrgyz. COMPAQ 490949-001 laptop keyboard

The Mongolic Khitans, descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao Dynasty (907–1125), after which the Khamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to prominence.[citation needed] In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes (belonging to the Shiwei branch of the Mongolic Xianbei) between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains. In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan, and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity –IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard

sweeping through much of Asia, and forming the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day Poland in the west to Korea in the east, and from Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi),[17] (22% of Earth's total land area) and having a population of over 100 million people. The emergence of Pax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asiaduring its height.[18][19] DELL NSK-DN01D laptop keyboard

After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or Khanates which eventually became quasi-independent after Möngke's death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland andChina, became the Yuan Dynasty under Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present day Beijingbut after more than a century of power, SAMSUNG N148 Laptop Keyboard

the Yuan was replaced by the Ming Dynasty in 1368, with the Mongol court fleeing to the north. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum among a few other cities, although some of these attempts were repelled by the Mongols under Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür.[citation needed]  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

After the expulsion of the Yuan Dynasty rulers from China, the Mongols continued to rule Mongolia, also referred to as the Northern Yuan. The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid Oirads, as well as by several Chinese invasions (like the five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor). In the early 15th century, the Oirads under Esen Tayisi gained the upper hand, and even raided China in 1449 in a conflictover Esen's right to pay tribute, capturing the Ming emperor in the process. However, Esen was murdered in 1454, and the Borjigids recovered.[citation needed] DELL V110546AS1 laptop keyboard

Batumöngke Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited the entire Mongol nation under the Genghisids in the early 16th century. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan Khan – but no legitimate Khan himself – became powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557 and his meeting with the Dalai Lama in 1578 sparked the second introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard

His grandson Zanabazar became the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. The entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their ger (yurt). Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. The top monasteries wielded significant temporal power besides spiritual power.[citation needed] ACER Acer Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The last Mongol Khan was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with theManchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634 on his way to Tibet, in an attempt to evade the Manchus and destroy the Yellow Hat sect of Buddhism. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus,  FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard

who founded the Qing Dynasty. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Beijing's rule. After several wars, the Dzungars (the western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757–58.[20] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by a combination of disease and warfare.[21] Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, SONY Vaio SONY PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

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Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto authority. The Manchus also forbade mass Chinese immigration, allowing the Mongols to keep their culture. The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road which had permanent stations located every 25–30 km each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families. Urga (present-day Ulaanbaatar) benefited greatly from this overland trade as it was the only major settlement in Outer Mongolia used as a stopover point by merchants, officials and travelers on the Tea Road.[citation needed] HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop Keyboard

Until 1911, the Qing Dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with a series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans, Manchu "high officials", were installed in Khüree, Uliastai, and Khovd, and the country was subdivided into ever more feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms. Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard

The behaviour of Mongolia's nobility, together with the usurious practices of the Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in poverty becoming ever more rampant. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia and 115,000 monks who made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu there were 13 other reincarnating high-lamas called 'seal-holding saints' (tamgatai khutuktu) in Outer Mongolia. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

With the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared independence in 1911. However, the newly establishedRepublic of China considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia during the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7305 Laptop Keyboard

However, as a result of the Russian Civil War, the White Russian adventurer Baron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel Khüree (Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921. In order to eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. DELL V110546AS1 Laptop Keyboard

This Mongolian army took the Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on March 18, 1921, and on July 6 Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia's independence was declared once again on July 11, 1921.[22] These events led to Mongolia's close alignment with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

In 1924, after the death of the religious leader and khan, Bogd Khan, a Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed with support from the Soviet Union.

In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. He instituted collectivisation of livestock, the destruction of Buddhist monasteries and the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia resulting in the murder ofmonks and other people. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, about 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia.[23] HP Hp Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

The Stalinist purges in Mongolia that began in 1937 affected the Republic by killing more than 30,000 people. Japanese imperialism became even more alarming after the invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931. During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japaneseexpansionism. FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Laptop Keyboard

In August 1945 Mongolian forces also took part in the Soviet Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation in Inner Mongolia. The Soviet threat of seizing parts of Inner Mongolia[citation needed] induced China to recognize Outer Mongolia's independence, provided that a referendum be held. The referendum took place on October 20, 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence.[citation needed] After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard

both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on October 6, 1949. On January 26, 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power. In 1956 and again in 1962, Choibalsan'spersonality cult was condemned at the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee plenums. Mongolia continued to align itself closely with the Soviet Union, especially after the Sino-Soviet split of the late 1950s. In the 1980s, an estimated 55,000 Soviet troops were based in Mongolia. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmönkh.[citation needed] ACER Acer Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

The introduction of perestroika and glasnost in the USSR by Mikhail Gorbachev strongly influenced Mongolian politics, leading to the peaceful Democratic Revolution and the introduction of a multi-party system and market economy. A new constitution was introduced in 1992, and the "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The transition to market economy was often rocky. The early 1990s saw high inflation and food shortages.[citation needed] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

The first election wins for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). The signing of the Oyu Tolgoi mine contract is considered a major milestone in modern Mongolian history. The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party renamed itself the Mongolian People's Party in 2010.[citation needed] HP Hp Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

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At 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi),[24] Mongolia is the world's 19th-largest country (afterIran). It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between latitudes 41° and 52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes 87° and120°E. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 38 kilometres (24 mi) from Kazakhstan. ACER Acer Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and with cold and mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of steppes. The highest point in Mongolia is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of the Uvs Lake, shared with Tuva Republic in Russia, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

is a natural World Heritage Site. Most of the country is hot in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F).[25] A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion (temperature increases with altitude). DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

In winter the whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone. The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province (Ulaangom), western Khovsgol (Rinchinlhumbe), eastern Zavkhan (Tosontsengel), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is also strongly affected but not as severely. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching the warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province (DELL NSK-DN01D Laptop Keyboard

Dalanzadgad,Khanbogd) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province (Tsetserleg) and northern Ovorkhangai Province (Arvaikheer) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to the south in addition to being more stable. The Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, SONY Vaio SONY PCG-K25 Laptop Keyboard

nighttime January temperatures rarely go under −30°C while daytime January temperatures often reach 0°C to 5°C and locals rarely have the stinging sensations associated with early frostbite.[26][27] In Mongolia, being exposed to temperatures ranging from −30°C to −40°C for more than 60 minutes may increase the risk of frostbite. A strong wind at those temperatures almost certainly leads to frostbite even for Mongolians (who have special physical adaptations to the cold). TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. The annual average temperature in Ulan Bator is 0°C, making it the world's coldest capital city.[25] Mongolia is high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (7.9 to 13.8 in) per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (3.9 to 7.9 in) annually. The highest annual precipitation of 622.297mm occurred in the forests of Bulgan Province close to the border with Russia and the lowest of 41.735mm occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990).[28] The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600mm in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8mm) or Berlin (571mm). DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camelscan survive. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Mongolia's total population as of July 2007 is estimated by U.S. Census Bureau[29] at 2,951,786 people, ranking at around 138th in the world in terms of population. But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses theUnited Nations (UN) estimations[30] instead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division[31] FUJITSU Lifebook T4220 Laptop Keyboard

estimates Mongolia's total population (mid 2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than the U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.).[31] About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy. HP Pavilion dv5-1111ea Laptop Keyboard

The first census in the 20th century was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647,500.[32] Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of total fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations:[31] in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, but 2005–2010 prospects are 1.87 (4 times less). ACER TravelMate 3002WTMi Laptop Keyboard

Ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% includeOirats, Buryats and others. Turkic peoples (Kazakhs, Tuvans, and Chantuu (Uzbek) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities.[33] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Languages

The official language of Mongolia is Mongolian, and is spoken by 95% of the population. A variety of dialects of Oirat andBuryat are spoken across the country, and there are also some speakers of Mongolic Khamnigan. In the west of the country,Kazakh and Tuvan, both Turkic languages, are also spoken. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Today, Mongolian is written using the Cyrillic alphabet, although in the past it was written using the Mongolian script. An official reintroduction of the old script was planned for 1994, but has not yet taken place as older generations encountered practical difficulties.[34] The traditional alphabet is being slowly reintroduced through schools.[35] HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard

Russian is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia, followed by English, although English has been gradually replacing Russian as the second language. Korean has gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea.[36] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Interest in Chinese, as the language of the other neighbouring power, has been growing; according to Uradyn E. Bulag, anthropologist at Hunter College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, USA, Mongols are displaying significant linguistic anxiety about losing their language and linguistic identity to powerful Chinese nationalistic and cultural forces.[37] SONY KFRMBA221A Laptop Keyboard

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Japanese is popular among the younger people. A number of older educated Mongolian citizens speak some German, as they studied in the former East Germany, while a few speak other languages from the former Eastern Bloc. Besides that, many younger people are fluent in the Western European languages as they study or work in, among other places, Germany, France and Italy. Deaf people in Mongolia use Mongolian Sign Language. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Various forms of Tengriism and shamanism have been widely practiced throughout the history of what is now modern day Mongolia, with such beliefs being common among the nomads of central Asia. They gradually gave way to Tibetan Buddhism, but shamanism has left a mark on Mongolian religious culture, and it continues to be practiced. The Kazakhs of western Mongolia traditionally practice Islam. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Throughout much of the 20th century, the communist government ensured that the religious practices of the Mongolian people were largely repressed. It targeted the clergy of the Mongolian Tibetan Buddhist Church, which had been tightly intertwined with the previous feudal government structures (e.g. from 1911 on, the head of the Church had also been thekhan of the country).[39] HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

In the late 1930s, the regime, then led by Khorloogiin Choibalsan, closed almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries and killed at least 30,000 people, of whom 18,000 were lamas.[40] The number ofBuddhist monks dropped from 100,000 in 1924 to 110 in 1990.[39] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard

The fall of Communism in 1991 restored public religious practice. Tibetan Buddhism, which had been the predominant religion prior to the rise of communism, again rose to become the most widely practiced religion in Mongolia. The end of religious repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions, such as Baha'i Faith and Christianity, ACER Acer Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

to spread in the country. According to the Christian missionary group Barnabas Fund, the number of Christians grew from just four in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008. There are some 1000 Catholics in Mongolia and, in 2003, a missionary from thePhilippines was named Mongolia's first Catholic bishop.[41] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture, although development of extensive mineral deposits of copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold have emerged as a driver of industrial production.[44]Besides mining (21.8% of GDP) and agriculture (16% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are wholesale and retail trade and service, transportation and storage, and real estate activities.[44] DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

The grey economy is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy.[44] As of 2006, 68.4% of Mongolia's exports went to the PRC, and the PRC supplied 29.8% of Mongolia's imports.[45] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

Mongolia is ranked as lower middle income economy by the World Bank.[46] 22.4% of the population lives on less than US $1.25 a day.[8] GDP per capita in 2011 was $3,100.[12] Despite growth, the proportion of the population below the poverty line was estimated to be 35.6% in 1998, 36.1% in 2002–2003, 32.2% in 2006.[47] TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

Because of a boom in the mining sector, Mongolia had high growth rates in 2007 and 2008 (9.9% and 8.9%, respectively).[44] In 2009, sharp drops in commodity prices and the effects of the global financial crisis caused the local currency to drop 40% against the U.S. dollar. Two of the 16 commercial banks were taken into receivership.[44] HP Mini 110-3131se Laptop Keyboard

GDP growth in 2011 was expected to reach 16.4%. However, inflation continued to erode GDP gains, with an average rate of 12.6% expected in Mongolia at the end of 2011.[44] Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002 at the rate of 7.5% in an official 2006 estimate, the state is still working to overcome a sizable trade deficit. The Economist expects this trade deficit of 14% of Mongolia's GDP to transform into a surplus in 2013.[48] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Mongolia was never listed among the Emerging markets countries until February 2011 when Citigroup analysts determined Mongolia to be one of Global Growth Generators countries which being countries with the most promising growth prospects for 2010–2050.[49] The Mongolian Stock Exchange, established in 1991 in Ulan Bator, is among the world's smallest stock exchanges by market capitalisation.[50][51] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In 2011, it had 336 companies listed with a total market capitalization of US$2 billion after quadrupling from US$406 million in 2008.[52] Mongolia made a significant improvement on the ease of doing business in 2012, moving up to rank 76 compared with 88 last year in the "Doing Business" report by the International Finance Corporation (IFC).[53] SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard

Minerals represent more than 80% of Mongolia's exports, a proportion expected to eventually rise to 95%.[48] About 3,000 mining licences have been issued.[48] Mining is continuing to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms opening and starting mining business in Mongolia.[12] Hp Envy 13-1000 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan  

In summer 2009 the government negotiated an "Investment Agreement" with Rio Tinto and Ivanhoe Mines to develop the Oyu Tolgoicopper and gold deposit,[44] the biggest foreign-investment project in Mongolia, expected to account for one-third of Mongolia's GDP by 2020.[48] Hp Envy 13-1002TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In March 2011, six big mining companies prepared to bid for the Tavan Tolgoi area, the world's largest untapped coal deposit. According to Erdenes MGL, the government body in-charge of Tavan Tolgoi, ArcelorMittal, Vale,Xstrata, U.S. coal miner Peabody, a consortium of Chinese energy firm Shenhua and Japan's Mitsui & Co, and a separate consortium of Japanese, South Korean and Russian firms are the preferred bidders.[55] Hp Envy 13-1001TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Agriculture

Main article: Agriculture in Mongolia

In 2002, about 30% of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding livestock.[56] Most herders in Mongolia follow a pattern of nomadic or semi-nomadicpastoralism. Due to the severe 2009–2010 winter, Mongolia lost 9.7 million animals, or 22% of total livestock. This immediately affected meat prices, which increased twofold; GDP dropped 1.6% in 2009.[44] Hp Envy 13-1003XX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Trans-Mongolian Railway is the main rail link between Mongolia and its neighbors. It begins at the Trans-Siberian Railwayin Russia at the town of Ulan-Ude, crosses into Mongolia, runs through Ulaanbaatar, then passes into China at Erenhot where it joins the Chinese railway system. A separate railroad link connects the eastern city of Choibalsan with the Trans-Siberian Railway. However, that link is closed to passengers after the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot.[57] Hp Envy 13-1004TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Mongolia has a number of domestic airports with some of them having international status. However, the main international airport is Chinggis Khaan International Airport, located approximately 20 km from center of Ulaanbaatar. Hp Envy 13-1006TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Direct flight connections exist between Mongolia and South Korea, China, Japan, Russia, Germany, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkey. MIAT Mongolian Airlines is Mongolia's national air carrier operating only international flights, while other domestic air carriers such asEznis Airways, AeroMongolia and Mongolian Airlines Group are serving both domestic and regional routes. Hp Envy 13-1005TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Many overland roads in Mongolia are only gravel roads or simple cross-country tracks. There are paved roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese border, from Ulaanbaatar east- and westward (the so-called Millenium Road), and from Darkhan to Bulgan. A number of road construction projects are currently underway. Hp Envy 13-1007EV Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of significant achievement in Mongolia. Illiteracy was virtually eliminated, in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy. Hp Envy 13-1007LA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Primary and secondary education formerly lasted 10 years, but was expanded to 11 years. Since the 2008–2009 school year, new first graders are using the 12 year system. As such, full transition to the 12-year system will not happen until the 2019–2020 school year, when the current third graders graduate.[58] Hp Envy 13-1007TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

As of 2006, across Mongolia, English is taught in all secondary schools beginning in fourth grade.

Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the National University of Mongolia and the Mongolian University of Science and Technology. Hp Envy 13-1008TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Health

Since 1990, key health indicators like life expectancy and infant and child mortality have steadily improved, both due to social changes and to improvement in the health sector. However, serious problems remain, especially in the countryside.[59] According to a 2011 study by the World Health Organization, Mongolia's capital city of Ulan Bator has the second-most fine particle pollution of any city in the world.[60] Hp Envy 13-1010ER Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Average childbirth (fertility rate) is around 2.25[29] – 1.87[31] per woman (2007) and average life expectancy is 68.5 years (2011).[8] Infant mortality is at 1.9%[61]-4%[62] and child mortality is at 4.3%.[63] Hp Envy 13-1015ER Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The health sector comprises 17 specialized hospitals and centers, 4 regional diagnostic and treatment centers, 9 district and 21 aimag general hospitals, 323 soum hospitals, 18 feldsher posts, 233 family group practices, and 536 private hospitals and 57 drug supply companies/pharmacies. In 2002 the total number of health workers was 33,273, of which 6823 were doctors, 788 pharmacists, 7802 nurses, and 14,091 mid-level personnel. At present, there are 27.7 physicians and 75.7 hospital beds per 10,000 inhabitants. Hp Envy 13-1030CA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Mongolia is a parliamentary republic. The president is directly elected. The people also elect the deputies in the national assembly, the State Great Khural, which chooses the prime minister, who nominates the Cabinet in consultation with the president. The Khural confirms the ministers. Mongolia's constitutionguarantees a number of freedoms, including full freedom of expression and religion. Mongolia has a number of political parties, the biggest are the Mongolian People's Party and the Democratic Party. Hp Envy 13-1030NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The People's Party – the People's Revolutionary Party between 1921 and 2010 – formed the government of the country from 1921 to 1996 (in a one-party system until 1990) and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006, it was part of a coalition with the Democrats and two other parties, and after 2006 it was the dominant party in two other coalitions. Hp Envy 13-1050EA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The party initiated two changes of government from 2004 until it lost power in a 2012 election. The Democrats were the dominant force in a ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and an almost-equal partner with the People's Revolutionary Party in a coalition between 2004 and 2006. An election of deputies to the national assembly on 28 June 2012 resulted in no party having an overall majority.[64] The Democratic Party won most seats[65] and its leader, Norovyn Altankhuyag, became prime minister on 10 August 2012.[66] Hp Envy 13-1050EF Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The President of Mongolia has a largely symbolic role, but can block the Parliament's decisions. The assembly can respond by overruling that veto by a two-thirds majority vote. Mongolia's constitution provides three requirements for taking office as president; the candidate must be a native-born Mongolian, be at least 45 years old, and have resided in Mongolia for five years before taking office. Hp Envy 13-1050EG Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The president must also formally resign his or her party membership.Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, a two-time former prime minister and ex-member of the Democratic Party was elected as president on May 24, 2009 and inaugurated on June 18 that year.[67] Hp Envy 13-1050ES Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to Iraq. About 130 troops are currently deployed in Afghanistan. 200 Mongolian troops are serving in Sierra Leone on a UN mandate to protect the UN's special court set up there, and in July 2009, Mongolia decided to send a battalion to Chad in support of MINURCAT.[69] Hp Envy 13-1099EO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed with the Belgian and Luxembourgish contingent in Kosovo. On November 21, 2005, George W. Bush became the first-ever sitting U.S. President to visit Mongolia.[70] In 2004, under the Bulgarian chairmanship, The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), invited Mongolia as its newest Asian Partner. In August, 2011, U.S. vice president Joe Biden made the first visit by a sitting vice president to Mongolia sinceHenry Wallace toured the region in 1944.[71] Hp Envy 13-1099XL Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

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The main festival is Naadam, which has been organised for centuries, consists of three Mongolian traditional sports, archery, horse-racing (over long stretches of open country, not the short racing around a track practiced in the West), and wrestling. Nowadays it is held on July 11 to July 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the National Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State. Hp Envy 13t-1000 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Another very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle bones at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion of the finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the target bones off the platform. This contest at Naadam is very popular and develops a serious audience among older Mongolians. In Mongolia, the khoomei (or throat singing), style of music is popular, particularly in parts of Western Mongolia. Hp Envy 14 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The ornate symbol in the leftmost bar of the national flag is a Buddhist icon calledSoyombo. It represents the sun, moon, stars, and heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen in traditional thangka paintings. Hp Envy 14-1000wx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Sports

Mongolia's Naadam festival takes place over three days in the summer and includes horse racing, archery, and Mongolian wrestling. These three sports, traditionally recognized as the three primary masculine activities, are the most widely watched and practiced sports throughout the country. Hp Envy 14-1000xx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Horse riding is especially central to Mongolian culture. The long-distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero Damdin Sükhbaatar scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while riding a horse at full gallop. Hp Envy 14-1001tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Other sports such as table tennis, basketball, and association football are increasingly getting popular. More Mongolian table tennis players are competing internationally. Hp Envy 14-1002tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part in the national wrestling competition. Hp Envy 14-1003tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

There are no weight categories or age limits. Each wrestler has his own attendant herald. The aim of the sport is to knock one's opponent off balance and throw him down, making him touch the ground with his elbow and knee.

The winners are honored with ancient titles: the winner of the fifth round gets the honorary title of nachin (falcon), of the seventh and eighth rounds zaan (elephant), and of the tenth and eleventh rounds arslan (lion). Hp Envy 14-1004tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan The wrestler who becomes the absolute champion is awarded the title of avarga (Titan). Every subsequent victory at the national Naadam-festival will add an epithet to the avarga title, like "Invincible Titan to be remembered by all". Beginning in 2003, the Mongolian parliament adopted a new law on Naadam, making amendments to some of the wrestling titles. The titles of iarudi and Khartsaga (Hawk) were added to the existing above-mentioned rules. Hp Envy 14-1005tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The traditional wrestling costume includes an open-fronted jacket, tied around the waist with a string. This is said to have come into use after the champion of a wrestling competition many years ago was discovered to be a woman. The jacket was introduced to ensure that only men could compete. Hp Envy 14-1006tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Mongolia's traditional wrestlers have made the transition to Japanese sumo wrestling with great success. Asashōryū Akinori was the first Mongolian to be promoted to the top sumo rank of yokozuna in 2003 and was followed by his countryman Hakuhō Shō in 2007. Hp Envy 14-1007tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Naidangiin Tüvshinbayar won Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in the men's 100-kilogram class of judo.[72]

Association football is also played in Mongolia. The Mongolia national football team began playing again in the 1990s; it has yet to qualify for a major tournament. The Mongolia Premier League is the top domestic competition. Hp Envy 14-1008tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Several Mongolian women have excelled in pistol shooting: Otryadyn Gündegmaa is a silver medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games, Munkhbayar Dorjsuren is a double world champion and Olympic bronze medal winner (now representing Germany), while Tsogbadrakhyn Mönkhzul is, as of May 2007, ranked third in the world in the 25 m Pistol event.[73] Hp Envy 14-1009tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function, and therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts.[74] Thangkas were usually painted or made in applique technique. Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities. A number of great works are attributed to the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu,Zanabazar. SONY PCG-GR300 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In the late 19th century, painters like "Marzan" Sharav turned to more realistic painting styles. Under the Mongolian People's Republic, socialist realism was the dominant painting style,[75] however traditional thangka-like paintings dealing with secular, nationalist themes were also popular, a genre known as "Mongol zurag".SONY PCG-GR300K Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Among the first attempts to introduce modernism into the fine arts of Mongolia was the painting Ehiin setgel (Mother's love) created by Tsevegjav in the 1960s. The artist was purged as his work was censored.

All forms of fine arts flourished only after "Perestroika" in the late 1980s. Otgonbayar Ershuu is arguably one of the most well-known Mongolian modern artists in the Western world, he was portrayed in the film "ZURAG" by Tobias Wulff.[76] SONY PCG-GR315MP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a ger. In the past it was known by the Russian term yurt, but this is changing as the Mongolian term becomes better known among English-speaking countries. According to Mongolian artist and art critic N. Chultem, theger was the basis for development of traditional Mongolian architecture. In the 16th and 17th centuries, lamaseries were built throughout the country. Many of them started asger-temples. When they needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers, SONY PCG-GR37 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

the Mongolian architects used structures with 6 and 12 angles[clarification needed] with pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of ager. Further enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were made in the shape of marquees.[77] The trellis walls, roof poles and layers of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became permanent.[78] SONY PCG-GR370 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian architecture: Mongolian, Tibetan and Chinese as well as combinations of the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654) designed by Zanabazar. An example of theger-style architecture is the lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulaanbaatar. The temple Lavrin (18th century) in the Erdene Zuulamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition. SONY PCG-GR370K Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulan Bator is a combination of the Mongolian and Chinese tradition. The temple of Maitreya (disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian architecture.[77] Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to restore the temple and the 80 feet (24 m) sculpture of Maitreya. SONY PCG-GR370P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by nature, nomadism, shamanism, and also Tibetan Buddhism. The traditional music includes a variety of instruments, famously the morin khuur, and also the singing styles like the urtyn duu ("long song"), and throat-singing (khoomei). The "tsam" is danced to keep away evil spirits and it was seen the reminiscences of shamaning. SONY PCG-GR390 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The first rock band of Mongolia was Soyol Erdene, founded in the 1960s. Their Beatles-like manner was severely criticized by the Communist censorship. It was followed by Mungunhurhree, Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc., carving out the path for the genre in the harsh environment of Communist ideology. Mungunhurhree and Haranga were to become the pioneers in the Mongolia's heavy rock music. Haranga approached its zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s. SONY PCG-GR390K Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped the growth of the following generations of rockers. Among the followers of Haranga was the band Hurd. In the early 1990s, group Har-Chono put the beginning for Mongolia's folk-rock, merging elements of the Mongolian traditional "long song" into the genre. SONY PCG-GR390P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had become largely liberal thanks to the new democratic society in the country. The 1990s saw development of rap, techno, hip-hop and also boy bands and girl bands flourish at the turn of the millennium. SONY PCG-GR3BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under the Mongolian Communist Party, with the establishment of the Unen ("Truth") newspaper similar to the Soviet Pravda.[79]Until reforms in the 1990s, the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all publishing, in which no independent media was allowed.[79] The dissolution of the Soviet Union had a significant impact on Mongolia, where the one-party state grew into a multi-party democracy, and with that, media freedoms came to the forefront. SONY PCG-GR3F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs on August 28, 1998 and enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for media reforms.[80] The Mongolian media currently consists of around 300 print and broadcasting outlets.[81] SONY PCG-GR3F/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the government debating a new Freedom of Information Act, and the removal of any affiliation of media outlets with the government.[82][83] Market reforms have led to an increasing number of people working in the media year on year, along with students at journalism schools.[82] In its 2008 report, Reporters Without Borders classified the media environment as 93rd out of 173, with 1st being most free.[84] SONY PCG-GR3N Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Dinosaur fossil sale controversy On May 20, 2012, a rare skeleton of a Tarbosaurus bataar, also known as Tyrannosaurus bataar, was sold to an undisclosed buyer for $1,052,500 at an auction inNew York City, USA, despite efforts by Mongolian President Elbegdorj Tsakhia to stop the sale. SONY PCG-GR3N/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Mongolian government is concerned about maintaining control over fossils and cultural relics while scientists worry about such items disappearing into private collections.[85] A smuggler was convicted in a New York court in December 2012 for looting Tyrannosaurus bataar skeletons originating from Mongolia and transporting them to the United States for sale.[86][87] SONY PCG-GR5BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

A parliamentary system is a system of democratic governance of a state in which the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from, and is held accountable to, the legislature(parliament); the executive and legislative branches are thus interconnected. In a parliamentary system, the head of state is normally a different person from the head of government. This is in contrast to a presidential system in a democracy, where the head of state often is also the head of government, and most importantly: the executive branch does not derive its democratic legitimacy from the legislature. SONY PCG-GR5E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Countries with parliamentary systems may be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the ceremonial head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of the legislature (such as United Kingdom, Sweden and Japan), or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the head of government is regularly from the legislature (such as Ireland, Poland, Germany, India and Italy). In a few parliamentary republics, such as South Africa and Botswana, the head of government is also head of state, but is elected by and is answerable to the legislature. SONY PCG-GR5E/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

SONY PCG-GR5F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The modern concept of prime ministerial government originated with the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800) and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden (1721–1772). SONY PCG-GR5F/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Prince Elector George Ludwig of Hanover, Germany acceded to the throne of Great Britain after his cousin Queen Anne died with no heirs. As King George I he chaired the cabinet and chose ministers of the government; however, he initially spoke no English. This shifted the balance of power towards the leading minister, or first minister, who de facto chaired the cabinet. Acer Aspire 1412LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

During his reign a gradual democratization of parliament with the broadening of the voting franchise[citation needed] increased the parliament's role in controlling government, and in deciding who the king could ask to form a government. Towards the end of his reign, actual power was held by Sir Robert Walpole, Britain's first prime minister. Later the Great Reform Act of 1832 broadened the franchise and was accompanied by increasing parliamentary dominance, with parliament always deciding who was prime minister. Acer Aspire 1412LCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Western European parliamentary model (e.g. Spain, Germany) tends to have a more consensual debating system, and usually has semi-circular debating chambers. Consensus systems have more of a tendency to use proportional representation with open party lists than the Westminster Model legislatures. The committees of these Parliaments tend to be more important than the plenary chamber. Acer Aspire 1412LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Some West European countries' parliaments (e.g. in the Netherlands and Sweden) implement the principle of dualism as a form of separation of powers. In countries using this system, Members of Parliament have to resign their place in Parliament upon being appointed (or elected) minister. Ministers in those countries usually actively participate in parliamentary debates, but are not entitled to vote. Acer Aspire 1412LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Implementations of the parliamentary system can also differ on whether the formation of government needs the explicit approval of the parliament, rather than just the absence of its disapproval, and under what conditions (if any) the government has the right to dissolve the parliament, like Jamaica and many others.[citation needed] Acer Aspire 1412WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Parliamentarianism may also apply to local governments. An example is the city of Oslo, which has an executive council (Byråd) as a part of the parliamentary system. Acer Aspire 1413 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Parliamentary system can be contrasted with a presidential system which operates under a stricter separation of powers, whereby the executive does not form part of, nor is appointed by, the parliamentary or legislative body. In such a system, Acer Aspire 1413LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

congresses do not select or dismiss heads of governments, and governments cannot request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments. There also exists the semi-presidential system that draws on both presidential systems and parliamentary systems by combining a powerful president with an executive responsible to parliament, as for example the French Fifth Republic. Acer Aspire 1413LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

One of the commonly attributed advantages to parliamentary systems is that it is faster and easier to pass legislation,[2] as the executive branch is dependent on the direct or indirect support of the legislative branch and often includes members of the legislature. Thus the executive (as the majority party or coalition of parties in the legislature) has a majority of the votes, Acer Aspire 1413LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

enabling them to pass legislation. In a presidential system, the executive is often chosen independently from the legislature. If the executive and the majority of the legislature are from different political parties, then stalemate can occur. Thus the executive might not be able to implement their legislative proposals. An executive in any system (be it parliamentary, presidential or semi-presidential) is chiefly voted into office on the basis of his or her party's platform/manifesto, and the same is also true of the legislative branch. Acer Aspire 1413WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

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In addition to quicker legislative action, Parliamentarianism has attractive features for nations that are ethnically, racially, or ideologically divided. In a presidential system, all executive power is vested in one person: the president. In a parliamentary system, with a collegial executive, power is more divided. In the 1989 Lebanese Taif Agreement, in order to give Muslims greater political power, Acer Aspire 1414L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Lebanon moved from a semi-presidential system with a strong president to a system more structurally similar to classical parliamentarianism. Iraq similarly disdained a presidential system out of fears that such a system would be tantamount to Shiite domination; Afghanistan's minorities refused to go along with a presidency as strong as the Pashtuns desired.[citation needed] Acer Aspire 1414LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Acer Aspire 1414LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Acer Aspire 1414LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

It can also be argued that power is more evenly spread out in the power structure of parliamentarianism. The prime minister is seldom as important as a ruling president, and there tends to be a higher focus on voting for a party and its political ideas than voting for an actual person. Acer Aspire 1414WLCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot praised parliamentarianism for producing serious debates, for allowing change in power without an election, and for allowing elections at any time. Bagehot considered the four-year election rule of the United States to be unnatural.[citation needed] Acer Aspire 1414WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Some scholars like Juan Linz, Fred Riggs, Bruce Ackerman, and Robert Dahl claim that parliamentarianism is less prone to authoritarian collapse. These scholars point out that since World War II, two-thirds of Third World countries establishing parliamentary governments successfully made the transition to democracy. By contrast, no Third World presidential system successfully made the transition to democracy without experiencing coups and other constitutional breakdowns.[citation needed] Acer Aspire 1415 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

A recent World Bank study found that parliamentary systems are associated with less corruption.[3]

Some constituencies may have a popular local candidate under an unpopular leader (or the reverse), forcing a difficult choice on the electorate. Mixed member proportional representation (where voters cast two ballots) can make this choice easier by allowing voters to cast one vote for the local candidate but also cast a second vote for another party. Acer Aspire 1415LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Although Walter Bagehot praised parliamentarianism for allowing an election to take place at any time, the lack of a definite election calendar can be abused. Previously under some systems, such as the British, a ruling party could schedule elections when it felt that it was likely to retain power, and so avoid elections at times of unpopularity – . Election timing in the UK, Acer Aspire 1640 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

however, is now partly fixed under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011. Thus, by wise timing of elections, in a parliamentary system a party can extend its rule for longer than is feasible in a functioning presidential system. This problem can be alleviated somewhat by setting fixed dates for parliamentary elections, as is the case in several of Australia's state parliaments. Acer Aspire 1640LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In other systems, such as the Dutch and the Belgian, the ruling party or coalition has some flexibility in determining the election date. Conversely, flexibility in the timing of parliamentary elections can avoid periods of legislative gridlock that can occur in a fixed period presidential system. Acer Aspire 1640Z Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

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Critics of the Westminster parliamentary system point out that people with significant popular support in the community are prevented from becoming prime minister if they cannot get elected to parliament since there is no option to "run for prime minister" as one can run for president under a presidential system. Additionally, prime ministers may lose their positions if they lose their seats in parliament, Acer Aspire 1641LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

even though they may still be popular nationally. Supporters of parliamentarianism respond by saying that as members of parliament, prime ministers are elected first to represent their electoral constituents and if they lose their support then consequently they are no longer entitled to be prime minister.[citation needed] This is, however, a moot point if proportional representation is used. Acer Aspire 1641WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Voting Choice Theory in Parliamentary Systems

Voters can choose among many parties in parliamentary systems, whereas the US Congressional system virtually ensures only two parties. Because Parliamentary systems allocate additional seats based upon the total nationwide voting percentage a party wins, in addition to the seats won in each voting district, voters know their votes for a less popular party candidate will still count for something even if their candidate does not win that district. Acer Aspire 1642WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

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In contrast, the U.S. voter knows such a vote is essentially wasted, because there is nothing gained when the system is winner take all. Indeed, U.S. voters know that voting for a candidate from any party other than the two most popular ones will actually help the candidate they least desire among the top two parties. This happens because if voters choose a candidate from other than the two major parties, Acer Aspire 1651NWLCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

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they are peeling off votes from the major party candidate who most closely aligns with the views of their minor party candidate, thus helping the other major party candidate, who least reflects these voters desires, to win the election. With no consolation prize in the form of the extra Parliamentary seats allocated to parties based on their nationwide proportion of the total vote, it is irrational for voters to choose from any but the two most popular party candidates. Acer Aspire 1651WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

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