Iraq

Iraq

Iraq borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the west, Saudi Arabia to the south and southwest, and Kuwait to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city, Baghdad is in the center-east of the country. TOSHIBA Satellite A205-S4607 Laptop Keyboard

Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq has been known to the west by the Greek toponym 'Mesopotamia' (Land between the rivers) and has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing, law and the wheel. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

 [citation needed] At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian-Chaldean empires. It was also part of the Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.[6][7] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq's modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres. Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932. Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

In 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Republic of Iraq was created. Iraq was controlled by the Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-led faction) from 1968 until 2003. After an invasion led by American and British forces, the Ba'ath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held. The American occupation of Iraq ended in 2011.[8] Iraq is home to two of the worlds holiest places among Shias; Najaf and Karbala.[9] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

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The Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk (Biblical Hebrew Erech) and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for "city", UR.[10][11] HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard

Lower Mesopotamia has always been called "the land of Iraq" in Arabic, meaning "the fertile" or "deep-rooted land".[12][page needed] During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī ("Arabian Iraq") for lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī ("Persian Iraq"[13] or "Foreign Iraq"),[14] SAMSUNG R470 Laptop Keyboard

for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran.[13] The term historically included the plain south of the Hamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost and westernmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq.[15] The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, contrasting it with the arid Arabian desert. HP Mini 110-3550tu Laptop Keyboard

As an Arabic word, عراق means "hem", "shore", "bank", or "edge",[citation needed] so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as "the escarpment", viz. at the south and east of the Jazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the "al-Iraq arabi" area.[16]

The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq]. LENOVO IdeaPad S9e 4187 Laptop Keyboard

In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ (the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary and the first one in Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary) or /ɪˈræk/ (listed first by MQD), the American Heritage Dictionary, and the Random House Dictionary. /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in US media. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq has the common epithet, the "Cradle of Civilization", as it was home to the earliest known civilization, the Sumerian civilization, which arose in the fertile Tigris-Euphrates river valley of southern Iraq in the Chalcolithic (Ubaid period). HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard

It was here in the late 4th millennium BC, that the world's first writing system and recorded history itself were born. The Sumerian civilization flourished for over 3,000 years[citation needed] and was succeeded by the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BC. Over two centuries of Akkadian dominance was followed by a Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC. An Elamite invasion in 2004 BC brought the Third Dynasty of Ur to an end. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

By the 21st century BC, a new Akkadian civilization, Assyria, had risen to dominance in northern Iraq, and by the 19th century BC a contemporaneous Amorite state, Babylonia, had formed in southern Iraq. TOSHIBA Satellite P500 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq was to be dominated by the Assyrians and Babylonians for the next 14 centuries, and under the Babylonian empire of Hammurabi, the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo Assyrian Empire of 911–609 BC, and the final Babylonian empire of 620–539 BC Iraq became a centre of world power. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

The Neo Assyrian Empire in particular put Iraq at the heart of a massive empire stretching from the Caucasus to Egypt and Arabia, and from Cyprus to Persia.

In the 6th century BC, Cyrus the Great of neighbouring Persia defeated the Neo-Babylonian Empire at the Battle of Opis and Iraq was subsumed into the Achaemenid Empire for nearly two centuries. SONY VAIO PCG-FR415M Laptop Keyboard

 In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great conquered the region, putting it under Hellenistic Seleucid rule for nearly two centuries.[17] The Parthians conquered the region during the reign of Mithridates I of Parthia (r. 171–138 BC). From Syria, the Romans invaded the region several times. ASUS F81 laptop keyboard

Christianity began to take hold in Iraq (particularly in Assyria) between the 1st and 3rd centuries, and Assyria became a center of the Church of the East. The Sassanid Persians under Ardashir I destroyed the Parthian Empire and conquered the region in 224 AD. The region was thus a province of the Persian Empire for four centuries, until the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century, although a number of indigenous states evolved during the Parthian era, such as Adiabene, Osroene and Hatra. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

The Islamic conquest in the 7th century established Islam in Iraq. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali moved his capital to Kufa "fi al-Iraq" when he became the fourth caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the province of Iraq from Damascus in the 7th century. (However, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

eventually there was a separate, independent Caliphate of Córdoba.)

The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad in the 8th century as their capital, and it became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more than a million,[18] and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. HP Pavilion dm3-1002TU laptop keyboard

The Mongols destroyed the city during the siege of Baghdad in the 13th century.[19]

In 1257, Hulagu Khan amassed an unusually large army, a significant portion of the Mongol Empire's forces, SAMSUNG R20 laptop keyboard

for the purpose of conquering Baghdad. When they arrived at the Islamic capital, Hulagu Khan demanded surrender but the last Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim refused. This angered Hulagu, and, consistent with Mongol strategy of discouraging resistance, Baghdad was decimated.[20] Estimates of the number of dead range from 200,000 to a million.[21] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 laptop keyboard

The Mongols destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate and the House of Wisdom, which contained countless precious and historical documents. The city has never regained its status as major center of culture and influence. Some historians believe that the Mongol invasion destroyed much of the irrigation infrastructure that had sustained Mesopotamia for millennia. Other historians point to soil salination as the culprit in the decline in agriculture.[22] COMPAQ Presario V6002 laptop keyboard

The mid-14th-century Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world.[23] The best estimate for the Middle East is a death rate of a third.[24]

In 1401, warlord of Mongol descent Tamerlane (Timur Lenk) invaded Iraq. After the capture of Baghdad, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred.[25] Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur).[26]  DELL E141395 laptop keyboard

During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Black Sheep Turkmen ruled the area now known as Iraq. In 1466, the White Sheep Turkmen defeated the Black Sheep and took control. In the 16th century, most of the territory of present-day Iraq came under the control of Ottoman Empire as the eyalet of Baghdad. Compaq Presario CQ42-291TX laptop keyboard

Throughout most of the period of Ottoman rule (1533–1918) the territory of present-day Iraq was a battle zone between the rival regional empires and tribal alliances. The Safavid dynasty of Iran briefly asserted their hegemony over Iraq in the periods of 1508–1533 and 1622–1638.

By the 17th century, TOSHIBA Satellite A500-ST5605 laptop keyboard

the frequent conflicts with the Safavids had sapped the strength of the Ottoman Empire and had weakened its control over its provinces. The nomadic population swelled with the influx of bedouins from Najd, in the Arabian Peninsula. Bedouin raids on settled areas became impossible to curb.[27] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

During the years 1747–1831 Iraq was ruled by the Mamluk officers of Georgian[28] origin who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order and introduced a program of modernization of economy and military. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and imposed their direct control over Iraq. The population of Iraq had shrunk to under 5 million by the early 20th century.[29] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

During World War I, the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers. In the Mesopotamian campaign against the Central Powers, British forces invaded the country and suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the Siege of Kut (1915–1916). In 1916, the British and French made a plan for the post-war division of Western Asia under the Sykes-Picot Agreement.[30] British forces regrouped and captured Baghdad in 1917. An armistice was signed in 1918. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

During World War I the Ottomans were driven from much of the area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown but the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, of which 112,000 were combat troops. HP Pavilion DV6-1105ee Laptop Keyboard

On 11 November 1920 Iraq became a League of Nations mandate under British control with the name "State of Iraq". The British established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.[specify][31][page needed]

Faced with spiralling costs and influenced by the public protestations of war hero T. E. Lawrence in The Times, Britain replaced Arnold Wilson in October 1920 with new Civil Commissioner Sir Percy Cox. Cox managed to quell the rebellion, yet was also responsible for implementing the fateful policy of close cooperation with Iraq's Sunni minority.[32] DELL FM8 Laptop Keyboard

Britain granted independence to the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his underage son, Faisal II. 'Abd al-Ilah served as Regent during Faisal's minority. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and overthrew the government of 'Abd al-Ilah. During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that the Rashid Ali government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of his links to the Axis powers. The war started on 2 May and an armistice was signed 31 May. HP G61-631NR Laptop Keyboard

A military occupation followed the restoration of the pre-coup government of the Hashemite monarchy. The occupation ended on 26 October 1947. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashemite monarchy were Nuri as-Said, the autocratic Prime Minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, the former Regent who now served as an adviser to King Faisal II. HP Pavilion dv6-3124tx Laptop Keyboard

In 1958 a coup d'etat known as the 14 July Revolution led to the end of the monarchy. Brigadier General Abd al-Karim Qasim assumed power, but he was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif in a February 1963 coup. After his death in 1966 he was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, who was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party in 1968. Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr became the first Ba'ath President of Iraq but then the movement gradually came under the control of General Saddam Hussein, SONY VAIO VGN-CR121E Laptop Keyboard

who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979.

After the success of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, President Saddam Hussein invaded Iran a year and a half later, initiating the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). The war ended in stalemate in 1988, largely due to foreign support for Iraq. Between half a million and 1.5 million people from both sides died in the 1980–1988 war.[33] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

With economic loss of more than $500 billion for both sides. In 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed an Iraqi nuclear materials testing reactor as part of Operation Opera which became widely criticized because of Israel's involvement in a foreign conflict. In the final stages of Iran–Iraq War, the Ba'athist Iraqi regime led the Al-Anfal Campaign, a genocidal[34] campaign that targeted Iraqi Kurds,[35][36][37] and led to the killing of 50,000 – 100,000 civilians.[38] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

In August 1990, Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait. This subsequently led to military intervention by United States-led forces in the Second Gulf War. The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets.[39][40][41] Shortly after the war ended in 1991, Shia Muslim and Kurdish Iraqis led several uprisings against the regime, but these were successfully repressed by Hussein.[42] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

It is estimated that as many as 100,000 people were killed.[43] The US, UK, France and Turkey claiming authority under UNSCR 688, established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish and Shiite populations from attacks by the Hussein regime's aircraft. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

The Iraqi government claimed some inspectors were spies for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency.[44] On multiple occasions throughout the disarmament crisis, the UN passed further resolutions (see United Nations Resolutions concerning Iraq) compelling Iraq to comply with the terms of the ceasefire resolutions. HP Mini 210-1070NR Laptop Keyboard

During the late 1990s, the U.N. considered relaxing the Iraq sanctions because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.[45][46][47]

In October 1998, U.S. President Bill Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act, calling for "regime change" in Iraq, and initiated Operation Desert Fox. HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard

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Kurdish Peshmerga became the northern front of the invasion and eventually defeated Ansar al-Islam in Northern Iraq before the invasion and Saddam's forces in the north. The battle led to the killing of a substantial number of militants and the uncovering of what was claimed to be a chemical weapons facility at Sargat.[48][page needed][49][page needed] In October 2002, the U.S. Congress passed the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, and in November the UN Security Council passed UNSCR 1441. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

On March 20, 2003, a United States-organized coalition invaded Iraq, with the stated reason that Iraq had failed to abandon its nuclear and chemical weapons development program in violation of U.N. Resolution 687. These claims were based on documents that were provided by the CIA and the government of the United Kingdom.[50] ASUS F5RI Laptop Keyboard

However, according to a comprehensive U.S. government report, no weapons of mass destruction have been found.[51] The Duelfer Report in 2004 found that Saddam Hussein had halted all nuclear weapons research in 1991, and had ended research into chemical and biological weapons in 1995.[52] Antiquated warheads containing trace amounts of the nerve gas cyclosarin were found, but U.S. military tests found they would "have limited to no impact if used by insurgents against coalition forces."[53] Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

Following the invasion, the United States established the Coalition Provisional Authority to govern Iraq. In May 2003 L. Paul Bremer, the chief executive of the CPA, issued orders to exclude Baath Party members from the new Iraqi government (CPA Order 1) and to disband the Iraqi Army (CPA Order 2).[54] Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard

The decision to dissolve the army was blamed for leading many Sunnis, who led much of the army, to join the insurgency against American occupation.[55] The exclusion of people who belonged to the ruling party and the abolition of whole ministries were considered to have gutted the state and helped bring about chaos.[56] COMPAQ Presario CQ41-226TX laptop keyboard

The years following the invasion saw insurgency against Coalition and government troops as well as intense violence between Sunnis and Shias, death squads being a major threat to stability and security.[57] The Mahdi Army, a Shia militia created in the summer of 2003 by Moqtada Sadr, was considered by the Pentagon to be the greatest threat to Iraq's security.[58] HP Pavilion dv6-2157sb laptop keyboard

Its membership reached some 60,000 by December 2006.[58] Al-Qaeda was also involved in Iraq in an attempt to incite sectarian violence and greater chaos in the country by targeting Shia.[59] By 2007, the violence had increased to the point of being described in the United States' National Intelligence Estimate as a civil war. On December 30, 2006, Saddam Hussein was hanged.[60] Some of his closest associates were also executed.[61][62] Ali Hassan al-Majid (aka Chemical Ali) was executed in 2010 for his role in the Halabja poison gas attack in 1988.[63] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q laptop keyboard

There have since been many attacks on Iraqi minorities such as the Yezidis, Mandeans, Assyrians and others.[64] A U.S. troop surge was enacted to deal with increased violence; in September 2007, General Petraeus stated that the surge's goals were being met.[65] Violence in Iraq began to decline from the summer of 2007.[66] SONY Vaio PCG-K25 laptop keyboard

Iraq also suffered a cholera outbreak in 2007.[67]

Crime and violence initially spiked in the months following the US withdrawal from cities.[68][69] Despite the initial increase in violence, in November 2009, Iraqi Interior Ministry officials reported that the civilian death toll in Iraq fell to its lowest level since the 2003 invasion.[70]

U.S. troops continued to work with Iraqi forces after the pullout.[71] HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

The Status of Forces Agreement stated that U.S. troops would leave the country on December 31, 2011.[72] On the morning of December 18, the final contingent of U.S. troops to be withdrawn ceremonially exited over the border to Kuwait,[8] though the U.S. still maintains two bases and approximately 4,000 troops in the country.[73] SONY VGN-FE28B laptop keyboard

The Iraqi National Movement, reportedly representing the majority of Iraqi Sunnis, boycotted Parliament for several weeks in late 2011 and early 2012, claiming that the Shiite-dominated government was striving to sideline Sunnis. In January 2012, Vice President Tariq al-Hashimi, a Sunni, fled to the semi-autonomous Kurdish region after the government accused him of running a sectarian death squad; in February, ASUS F5SL laptop keyboard

a panel of Iraqi judges concluded that "death squads commanded by Mr. Hashimi carried out 150 attacks over six years against religious pilgrims, security officers and political foes".[73]

Insurgent forces continue to be active.[74] Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard

In February 2011 the Arab Spring protests spread to Iraq,[75] however these initial protests had largely ended by the end of 2011. In December 2012 a new series of protests began, largely driven by Sunni Arabs who feel marginalized by Iraq's Shia government.[76][77] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Iraq lies between latitudes 29° and 38° N, and longitudes 39° and 49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 437,072 km2 (168,754 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It is comparable in size to the US state of California, and somewhat larger than Paraguay. ASUS F5R Laptop Keyboard

Iraq mainly consists of desert, but near the two major rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) are fertile alluvial plains, as the rivers carry about 60,000,000 m3 (78,477,037 cu yd) of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 m (11,847 ft) point, DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

unnamed on the map opposite, but known locally as Cheekah Dar (black tent). Iraq has a small coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coast and along the Shatt al-Arab (known as arvandrūd: اروندرود among Iranians) there used to be marshlands, but many were drained in the 1990s. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as a democratic, federal parliamentary Islamic republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard

The National Alliance is the main Shia parliamentary bloc, and was established as a result of a merger of Prime Minister Nouri Maliki's State of Law Coalition and the Iraqi National Alliance.[78] The Iraqi National Movement is led by Iyad Allawi, HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Laptop Keyboard

a secular Shia widely supported by Sunnis. The party has a more consistent anti-sectarian perspective than most of its rivals.[78] The Kurdistan List is dominated by two parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party led by Masood Barzani and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan headed by Jalal Talabani. Both parties are secular and enjoy close ties with the West.[78] HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

In 2010, according to the Failed States Index, Iraq was the world's seventh most politically unstable country.[79][80] The concentration of power in the hands of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and growing pressure on the opposition have led to growing concern about the future of political rights in Iraq.[81] SONY VAIO VGN NR160E Laptop Keyboard

Since the establishment of the "no–fly zones" following the Gulf War of 1990–1991, the Kurds have established their own autonomous region. This has been a source of particular tension with Turkey. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

In October 2005, the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in a referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varying widely between the country's territories.[82] The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Ķurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on December 15, 2005. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Law no. 188 of the year 1959 (Personal Status Law)[83] made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16.[84] Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law.[85] TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offenses.[86] The code is based on French civil law as well as Sunni and Jafari (Shi’ite) interpretations of Sharia.[87] HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard

In 2004, the CFA chief executive L. Paul Bremer said he would veto any constitutional draft stating that sharia is the principal basis of law.[88] The declaration enraged many local Shia clerics,[89] and by 2005 the United States had relented, allowing a role for sharia in the constitution to help end a stalemate on the draft constitution.[90]

The Iraqi Penal Code is the statutory law of Iraq. SONY VAIO PCG-F50/BP laptop keyboard

Iraqi security forces are composed of forces serving under the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Defense, as well as the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Bureau, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of Iraq, which oversees the Iraqi Special Operations Forces. Ministry of Defense forces include the Iraqi Army, SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F laptop keyboard

the Iraqi Air Force and the Iraqi Navy. The Peshmerga are a separate armed force loyal to the Kurdistan Regional Government. The regional government and the central government disagree as to whether they are under Baghdad's authority and to what extent.[91] Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard

The Iraqi Army is an objective counter-insurgency force that as of November 2009 includes 14 divisions, each division consisting of 4 brigades.[92] It is described as the most important element of the counter-insurgency fight.[93] Light infantry brigades are equipped with small arms, machine guns, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

RPGs, body armor and light armored vehicles. Mechanized infantry brigades are equipped with T-54/55 main battle tanks and BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicles.[93] As of mid-2008, logistical problems included a maintenance crisis and ongoing supply problems.[94] HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

The Iraqi Air Force is designed to support ground forces with surveillance, reconnaissance and troop lift. Two reconnaissance squadrons use light aircraft, three helicopter squadrons are used to move troops and one air transportation squadron uses C-130 transport aircraft to move troops, equipment, and supplies. It currently has 3,000 personnel. It is planned to increase to 18,000 personnel, with 550 aircraft by 2018.[93] SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B laptop keyboard

The Iraqi Navy is a small force with 1,500 sailors and officers, including 800 Marines, designed to protect shoreline and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration. The navy is also responsible for the security of offshore oil platforms. The navy will have coastal patrol squadrons, assault boat squadrons and a marine battalion.[93] The force will consist of 2,000 to 2,500 sailors by year 2010.[95] ASUS M50 laptop keyboard

On November 17, 2008, the U.S. and Iraq agreed to a Status of Forces Agreement,[96] as part of the broader Strategic Framework Agreement.[97] This agreement states "the Government of Iraq requests" U.S. forces to temporarily remain in Iraq to "maintain security and stability," and that Iraq has jurisdiction over military contractors, and US personnel when not on US bases or on–duty. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

On 12 February 2009, Iraq officially became the 186th State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under the provisions of this treaty, Iraq is considered a party with declared stockpiles of chemical weapons. Because of their late accession, Iraq is the only State Party exempt from the existing timeline for destruction of their chemical weapons. Specific criteria is in development to address the unique nature of Iraqi accession.[98] SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard

Iran–Iraq relations have flourished since 2005 by the exchange of high level visits: Iraqi PM Nouri al-Maliki makes frequent visits, along with Jalal Talabani visiting numerous times, to help boost bilateral cooperation in all fields. A conflict occurred in December 2009, when Iraq accused Iran of seizing an oil well on the border.[99] HP Pavilion DV7t-2200 CTO laptop keyboard

Relationships with Turkey are tense, largely because of the Kurdistan Regional Government, as clashes between Turkey and the PKK continue.[100] In October 2011, the Turkish parliament renewed a law that gives Turkish forces the ability to pursue rebels over the border in Iraq."[101]

Relations between Iraq and its Kurdish population have been sour in recent history, especially with Saddam Hussein's genocidal campaign against them in the 1980s. ASUS F5SL laptop keyboard

After uprisings during the early 90s, many Kurds fled their homeland and no-fly zones were established in northern Iraq to prevent more conflicts. Despite historically poor relations, some progress has been made, and Iraq elected its first Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani, in 2005. Furthermore, Kurdish is now an official language of Iraq alongside Arabic according to Article 4 of the constitution.[102] Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard

LGBT rights in Iraq remain limited. Although decriminalized, homosexuality remains stigmatized in Iraqi society. Targeting people because of their gender identity or sexual orientation is not uncommon and is usually carried out in the name of family honor. People who dress in emo style are mistakenly associated with homosexuality and may suffer the same fate.[103] A BBC article published in 2009, SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard

which includes interviews of homosexual and transgendered Iraqis, suggests that LGBT people were less subject to violence under Hussein's regime.[104]

Iraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. The lack of development in other sectors has resulted in 18%–30% unemployed and a depressed per capita GDP of $4,000.[1] HP Pavilion DV7t-2200 CTO laptop keyboard

 Public sector employment accounted for nearly 60% of full-time employment in 2011.[105] The oil export industry, which dominates the Iraqi economy, generates very little employment.[105] Currently only a modest percentage of women (the highest estimate for 2011 was 22%) participate in the labour force.[105] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

Prior to US occupation, Iraq's centrally planned economy prohibited foreign ownership of Iraqi businesses, ran most large industries as state-owned enterprises, and imposed large tariffs to keep out foreign goods.[106] After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the Coalition Provisional Authority quickly began issuing many binding orders privatizing Iraq's economy and opening it up to foreign investment. Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

On November 20, 2004, the Paris Club of creditor nations agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown another $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief will be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.[107] SAMSUNG X20 Laptop Keyboard

In February 2011, Citigroup included Iraq in a group of countries which it described as 'Global Growth Generators', that it argued will enjoy significant economic growth in the future.[108]

The official currency in Iraq is the Iraqi dinar. The Coalition Provisional Authority issued new dinar coins and notes, with the notes printed by De La Rue using modern anti-forgery techniques.[109] Jim Cramer's October 20, 2009 endorsement of the Iraqi Dinar on CNBC has further piqued interest in the investment.[110] HP Pavilion dv6-3205tu Laptop Keyboard

 [111]

According to the Overseas Development Institute, international NGOs face challenges in carrying out their mission, leaving their assistance "piecemeal and largely conducted undercover, hindered by insecurity, a lack of coordinated funding, limited operational capacity and patchy information".[111] International NGOs have been targeted and during the first 5 years, 94 aid workers were killed, 248 injured, SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B Laptop Keyboard

  24 arrested or detained and 89 kidnapped or abducted.[111]

With its 143.1 billion barrels (2.275×1010 m3) of proved oil reserves, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of oil reserves.[112][113] Oil production levels reached 3.4 million barrels per day by December 2012.[114] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq intends to increase its production to 5 million barrels per day by 2014.[115] Only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone.[116] Iraq was one of the founding members of OPEC.[117]

As of 2010, despite improved security and billions of dollars in oil revenue, Iraq still generates about half the electricity that customers demand, leading to protests during the hot summer months.[118]  Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

The Iraq oil law is a proposed piece of legislation submitted to the Iraqi Council of Representatives in May 2007.[119] The Iraqi government has yet to reach an agreement on the law. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

According to a US Study from May 2007, between 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m3/d) and 300,000 barrels per day (48,000 m3/d) of Iraq’s declared oil production over the past four years could have been siphoned off through corruption or smuggling.[120] In 2008, Al Jazeera reported $13 billion of Iraqi oil revenues in U.S. care was improperly accounted for, of which $2.6 billion is totally unaccounted for.[121] HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

In June 2008, the Iraqi Oil Ministry announced plans to go ahead with small one- or two-year no-bid contracts to Exxon Mobil, Shell, Total and BP — once partners in the Iraq Petroleum Company — along with Chevron and smaller firms to service Iraq’s largest fields.[122] HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 laptop keyboard

These plans were canceled in September because negotiations had stalled for so long that the work could not be completed within the time frame, according to Iraqi oil minister Hussain al-Shahristani. Several United States senators had also criticized the deal, arguing it was hindering efforts to pass the hydrocarbon law.[123] HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

On June 30 and December 11, 2009, the Iraqi ministry of oil awarded service contracts to international oil companies for some of Iraq's many oil fields.[124][125] Oil fields contracted include the SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B laptop keyboard

An April 2009 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 31,234,000.[2] Iraq's population was estimated at only 2 million in 1878.[129] Iraq's population as announced by the government has reached 35 million amid a post-war population boom.[130] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

According to the Central Intelligence Agency, Arabs form 75%–80% of the population.[1] Minorities include a 15%–20% of Kurds, and Turkoman, Assyrian, or other make up 5% of the population.[1] Around 20,000 Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq.[131] The Iraqi population includes a community of around 30,000 Circassians,[132][133] 20,000 ACER Aspire 1410-742G16n Laptop Keyboard

Armenians, and a community of 2,500 Chechens.[134] In southern Iraq there is a community of Iraqis of African descent, a legacy of the slavery practiced in the Islamic Caliphate beginning before the Zanj Rebellion of the 9th century, and Basra's role as a key port.[135] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

Iraq is a Muslim-majority country; Islam accounts for 95% of the population, while Christianity or other religions for just 3%.[136] It has a mixed Shia and Sunnis population. Most sources estimate that around 65% of the population in Iraq are Shia, and around 35% are Sunni.[1][137] Christians have inhabited what is modern day Iraq for about 2,000 years.[138] Assyrians, most of whom are adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church, HP Pavilion dv6-3205tu Laptop Keyboard

Syriac Orthodox Church and the Assyrian Church of the East account for most of the Christian population, along with Armenians belonging to the Armenian Apostolic Church. Estimates for the numbers of Christians suggest a decline from 8–10% in the mid-20th century to 5% around the start of the 21st century, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

to around 4% in 2008. More than half of Iraqi Christians have fled to neighboring countries since the start of the war, and few plan to return.[139]

Arabic is the majority language, Kurdish is spoken by approximately 15–20% of the population, South Azeri (called Turkmen locally),[102] Neo-Aramaic and others by 5%.[1] Other smaller minority languages include Mandaic Shabaki, HP Pavilion dv6-2126eo Laptop Keyboard

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Armenian, and Persian. Arabic, Kurdish, Persian, and South Azeri are written with versions of the Arabic script, the Neo-Aramaic languages in the Syriac script and Armenian is written in the Armenian script. HP Pavilion dv6-2132ec Laptop Keyboard

Prior to the invasion in 2003, Arabic was the sole official language. Since the new Constitution of Iraq approved in June 2004, both Arabic and Kurdish are official languages,[141] while Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and South Azeri (referred to as respectively "Syriac" and "Turkmen" in the constitution) are recognized regional languages.[142] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

In addition, any region or province may declare other languages official if a majority of the population approves in a general referendum

There are also small populations of Mandaeans, Shabaks, Yarsan and Yezidis. The Iraqi Jewish community, numbering around 150,000 in 1941ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

, has almost entirely left the country.[140]

The dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country after the Multi-National invasion of Iraq in 2003, mostly to Syria and Jordan.[144] The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre estimates an additional 1.9 million are currently displaced within the country.[145] TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

In 2007, the U.N. said that about 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled and that most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return.[146] Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries.[147][148] In recent years the diaspora seems to be returning with the increased security; ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

the Iraqi government claimed that 46,000 refugees have returned to their homes in October 2007 alone.[149]

In November 2006, the UNHCR estimated that 1.8 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, who are mostly Sunni Muslims and Christians. Nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month, while another 1.6 million were displaced internally.[150] According to official United States Citizenship and Immigration Services statistics, 58,811 Iraqis have been granted refugee-status citizenship as of May 25, 2011.[151] HP Pavilion dv6-2126eo Laptop Keyboard

Iraq is known primarily for its rich maqam heritage which has been passed down orally by the masters of the maqam in an unbroken chain of transmission leading up to the present. The maqam al-Iraqi is considered to be the most noble and perfect form of maqam. Al-maqam al-Iraqi is the collection of sung poems written either in one of the sixteen meters of classical Arabic or in Iraqi dialect (Zuhayri).[152] This form of art is recognized by UNESCO as “an intangible heritage of humanity”.[153]  ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Early in the 20th century, many of the most prominent musicians in Iraq were Jewish.[154] In 1936, Iraq Radio was established with an ensemble made up entirely of Jews, with the exception of the percussion player. At the nightclubs of Baghdad, ensembles consisted of oud, qanun and two percussionists, HP Pavilion dv6-2126eo Laptop Keyboard

while the same format with a ney and cello were used on the radio.[154]

The most famous singer of the 1930s–1940s was perhaps the Jew Salima Pasha (later Salima Murad).[154][155] The respect and adoration for Pasha were unusual at the time, since public performance by women was considered shameful and most female singers were recruited from brothels.[154] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

The most famous early composer from Iraq was Ezra Aharon, an oud player, while the most prominent instrumentalist was Daoud Al-Kuwaiti. Daoud and his brother Saleh formed the official ensemble for the Iraqi radio station and were responsible for introducing the cello and ney into the traditional ensemble.[154] HP V061130AS1 Laptop Keyboard

Some important cultural institutions in the capital include the Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra – rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the Occupation of Iraq but have since returned to normal. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

The National Theatre of Iraq was looted during the 2003 invasion, but efforts are underway to restore it. The live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 movie theatres were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions. DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the Academy of Music, Institute of Fine Arts and the Music and Ballet school Baghdad. Baghdad also features a number of museums including the National Museum of Iraq – which houses the world's largest and finest collection of artifacts and relics of Ancient Iraqi civilizations; some of which were stolen during the Occupation of Iraq. SONY V072078BS1 laptop keyboard

The capital, Ninus or Nineveh, was taken by the Medes under Cyaxares, and some 200 years after Xenophon passed over its site, then mere mounds of earth. It remained buried until 1845, when Botta and Layard discovered the ruins of the Assyrian cities. The principal remains are those of Khorsabad, 10 miles (16 km) N.E. of Mosul; HP Mini 110-3020la laptop keyboard

of Nimroud, supposed to be the ancient Calah; and of Kouyunjik, in all probability the ancient Nineveh. In these cities are found fragments of several great buildings which seem to have been palace-temples. They were constructed chiefly of sun-dried bricks, and all that remains of them is the lower part of the walls, decorated with sculpture and paintings, portions of the pavements, a few indications of the elevation, HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr laptop keyboard

and some interesting works connected with the drainage.

Iraqi cuisine has a long history going back some 10,000 years – to the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Ancient Persians.[157] Tablets found in ancient ruins in Iraq show recipes prepared in the temples during religious festivals – the first cookbooks in the world.[157] Ancient Iraq, or Mesopotamia, HP Pavilion DV4150US laptop keyboard

was home to many sophisticated and highly advanced civilizations, in all fields of knowledge – including the culinary arts.[157] However, it was in the medieval era when Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate that the Iraqi kitchen reached its zenith.[157] Today the cuisine of Iraq reflects this rich inheritance as well as strong influences from the culinary traditions of neighbouring Turkey, Iran and the Greater Syria area.[157] HP Pavilion DV7-3110tx laptop keyboard

Some characteristic ingredients of Iraqi cuisine include – vegetables such as aubergine, tomato, okra, onion, potato, courgette, garlic, peppers and chilli, cereals such as rice, bulgur wheat and barley, pulses and legumes such as lentils, chickpeas and cannellini, fruits such as dates, raisins, apricots, figs, grapes, melon, pomegranate and citrus fruits TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-SP5010L laptop keyboard

, especially lemon and lime.[157]

Similarly with other countries of Western Asia, chicken and especially lamb are the favourite meats. Most dishes are served with rice – usually Basmati, grown in the marshes of southern Iraq.[157] Bulgur wheat is used in many dishes – having been a staple in the country since the days of the Ancient Assyrians.[157] IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard

After the end of the full state control in 2003, there were a period of significant growth in the broadcast media in Iraq. Immediately, and the ban on satellite dishes is no longer in place, and by mid-2003, according to a BBC report, HP Pavilion dv4-1199ea laptop keyboard

there were 20 radio stations from 0.15 to 17 television stations owned by Iraqis, and 200 Iraqi newspapers owned and operated. Significantly, there have been many of these newspapers in numbers disproportionate to the population of their locations. For example, in Najaf, which has a population of 300,000, is being published more than 30 newspapers and distributed. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

Iraqi media expert and author of a number of reports on this subject, Ibrahim Al Marashi, identifies four stages of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 where they had been taking the steps that have significant effects on the way for the later of the Iraqi media since then. Stages are: pre-invasion preparation, and the war and the actual choice of targets, the first post-war period, and a growing insurgency and hand over power to the Iraqi Interim Government (IIG) and Prime Minister Iyad Allawi.[156][page needed] SONY VAIO VGN-FZ210CE laptop keyboard

In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 6.84% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 6.96 physicians and 13.92 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[158] The life expectancy at birth was 68.49 years in 2010, or 65.13 years for males and 72.01 years for females.[159] This is down from a peak life expectancy of 71.31 years in 1996.[160] HP Pavilion dv6-2021el laptop keyboard

Iraq had developed a centralized free health care system in the 1970s using a hospital based, capital-intensive model of curative care. The country depended on large-scale imports of medicines, medical equipment and even nurses, paid for with oil export income, according to a “Watching Brief” report issued jointly by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in July 2003. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-302SL laptop keyboard

Unlike other poorer countries, which focused on mass health care using primary care practitioners, Iraq developed a Westernized system of sophisticated hospitals with advanced medical procedures, provided by specialist physicians. The UNICEF/WHO report noted that prior to 1990, 97% of the urban dwellers and 71% of the rural population had access to free primary health care; just 2% of hospital beds were privately managed. [161] HP Pavilion dv6-2010sa laptop keyboard

The CIA World Factbook estimates that in 2000 the adult literacy rate was 84% for males and 64% for females, with UN figures suggesting a small fall in literacy of Iraqis aged 15–24 between 2000 and 2008, from 84.8% to 82.4%.[162] The Coalition Provisional Authority undertook a complete reform of Iraq’s education system: Lenovo Thinkpad T520 laptop keyboard

Baathist ideology was removed from curricula and there were substantial increases in teacher salaries and training programs, which the Hussein regime neglected in the 1990s. In 2003 an estimated 80% of Iraq’s 15,000 school buildings needed rehabilitation and lacked basic sanitary facilities, and most schools lacked libraries and laboratories. Compaq Presario CQ42-258VX laptop keyboard

Education is mandatory only through the sixth grade, after which a national examination determines the possibility of continuing into the upper grades. Although a vocational track is available to those who do not pass the exam, few students elect that option because of its poor quality. Boys and girls generally attend separate schools beginning with seventh grade. In 2005 obstacles to further reform were poor security conditions in many areas, TOSHIBA Satellite l20-c430 laptop keyboard

a centralized system that lacked accountability for teachers and administrators, and the isolation in which the system functioned for the previous 30 years. Few private schools exist. Prior to the occupation of 2003, some 240,000 persons were enrolled in institutions of higher education.

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the University of Dohuk (1717th worldwide), the University of Baghdad (3160th) and Babylon University (3946th).[163] SONY Vaio PCG-K415B Laptop Keyboard

The Umayyad Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الأموية‎, trans. Al-Ḫilāfa al-ʾumawiyya) was the second of the four major Islamic caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was centered on the Umayyad dynasty (Arabic: الأمويون‎, al-ʾUmawiyyūn, or بنو أمية, Banū ʾUmayya, "Sons of Umayya"), hailing from Mecca. The Umayyad family had first come to power under the third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656),  IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

but the Umayyad regime was founded by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of Syria, after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in 661 CE/41 AH. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Transoxiana, Sind, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.79 million square miles (15,000,000 km2), making it the largest empire the world had yet seen, and the fifth largest ever to exist.[5] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

At the same time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were widely perceived as absolutist, oppressive and unjust, deviating from the precepts of Islam. Coupled with rivalries between the Arab tribes, their rule was plagued by unrest in the provinces outside Syria, most notably in the Second Muslim Civil War of 680–692 CE and the Berber Revolt of 740–743 CE. During the Second Civil War, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

leadership of the Umayyad clan shifted from the Sufyanid branch of the family to the Marwanid branch. As the constant campaigning exhausted the resources and manpower of the state, the Umayyads, weakened by the Third Muslim Civil War of 744–747 CE, were finally toppled by the Abbasid Revolution in 750 CE/132 AH. DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

According to tradition, the Umayyad family (also known as the Banu Abd-Shams) and Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusai and they are originally from the city of Mecca. Muhammad descended from Abd Manāf via his son Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Manaf via a different son, Abd-Shams, whose son was Umayya. The two families are therefore considered to be different clans (those of Hashim and of Umayya, respectively) of the same tribe (that of the Quraish). ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard

However Muslim Shia historians point out that Umayya was an adopted son of Abd Shams so he was not a blood relative of Abd Manaf ibn Qusai. Umayya was later discarded from the noble family.[6] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

While the Umayyads and the Hashimites may have had bitterness between the two clans before Muhammad, the rivalry turned into a severe case of tribal animosity after the Battle of Badr. The battle saw three top leaders of the Umayyad clan (Utba ibn Rabi'ah, Walid ibn Utbah and Shaybah) killed by Hashmites (Ali, Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and Ubaydah ibn al-Harith) in a three-on-three melee.[7] DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

This fueled the opposition of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sufyan sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging another battle with Muslims based in Medina only a year after the Battle of Badr. He did this to avenge the defeat at Badr. The Battle of Uhud is generally believed by scholars to be the first defeat for the Muslims, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

as they had incurred greater losses than the Meccans. After the battle, Abu Sufyan's wife Hind, who was also the daughter of Utba ibn Rabi'ah is reported to have cut open the corpse of Hamza, taking out his liver which she then attempted to eat.[8] Within five years after his defeat in the Battle of Uhud however, Muhammad took control of Mecca[9] TOSHIBA NSK-TK001 Laptop Keyboard

and announced a general amnesty for all. Abu Sufyan and his wife Hind embraced Islam on the eve of the conquest of Mecca, as did their son (the future caliph Muawiyah I). The Conquest of Mecca while overwhelming for the Umayyads for the time being, further fueled their hatred towards the Hashmites[neutrality is disputed]; this would later result in battles between Muawiyah I and Ali and then killing of Husayn ibn Ali along with his family and a few friends on the orders of Yazid ibn Muawiyah at the Battle of Karbala.[10]  Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard

Most historians[who?] consider Caliph Muawiyah (661–80) to have been the second ruler of the Umayyad dynasty, even though he was the first to assert the Umayyads' right to rule on a dynastic principle. It was really the caliphate of Uthman Ibn Affan (644–656), a member of Umayyad clan himself, HP Pavilion DV6-1000 Laptop Keyboard

that witnessed the revival and then the ascendancy of the Umayyad clan to the corridors of power. Uthman, during his reign, placed some of the trusted members of his clan at prominent and strong positions throughout the state. Most notable was the appointment of Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Uthman's first cousin, HP 492991-001 Laptop Keyboard

as his top advisor, which created a stir amongst the Hashmite companions of Muhammad, as Marwan along with his father Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-'As had been permanently exiled from Medina by Muhammad during his lifetime. Uthman also appointed Walid ibn Uqba, Uthman's half-brother, as the governor of Kufa, who was accused, SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

by Hashmites, of leading prayer while under the influence of alcohol.[11] Uthman also consolidated Muawiyah's governorship of Syria by granting him control over a larger area[12] and appointed his foster brother Abdullah ibn Saad as the Governor of Egypt. However, since Uthman never named an heir, he cannot be considered the founder of a dynasty. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.[13][14] To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.[15][16][17][18][19] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

Muawiyah I was a very successful governor and built up a very loyal and disciplined army from the old Roman Syrian army. He also befriended Amr ibn al-As who had conquered Egypt but was removed by Uthman ibn al-Affan. ACER Aspire 4743 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Quran and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the The Farewell Sermon.[20][21][22][23][24][25][26] Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

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formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.[27] Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a governor or the commander was becoming attracted to wealth, he had him removed from his position.[28] TOSHIBA Satellite U205-s5044 laptop keyboard

Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.[29][30][31][32] TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard

As Uthman ibn al-Affan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah I slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq showed some Egyptians, the house of Uthman ibn al-Affan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan.[33] HP Pavilion ze5200 laptop keyboard

After the assassination of Uthman in 656, Ali, a member of the Quraysh tribe and a cousin of Muhammad, was elected as the caliph. He soon met with resistance from several factions, owing to his relative political inexperience. Ali moved his capital from Medina to Kufa. The resulting conflict, which lasted from 656 until 661, HP Pavilion DV6-1000 laptop keyboard

is known as the First Fitna ("civil war"). Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprils arrested. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict. Aisha, the wife of Muhammad, and Talhah and Al-Zubayr, two of the companions of Muhammad when to Basra to tell Ali to arrest the culprits who murdered Uthman. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Marwan I and other people who wanted conflict manipulated every one to fight. The two sides clashed at the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali won a decisive victory. HP Pavilion DV6-1128el laptop keyboard

Following this battle, Ali fought a battle against Muawiyah, known as the Battle of Siffin. The battle was stopped before either side had achieved victory, and the two parties agreed to arbitrate their dispute. After the battle Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah and an arbitrator and Ali appointed Abu Musa Ashaari. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10 miles north west of Maan in Jordon in February 658. COMPAQ Presario V6106AU laptop keyboard

Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Ashaari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah I. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr. Ali refused to accept the verdict and found him self technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. SONY A1565184C laptop keyboard

This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire the Kharijites. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). IBM ThinkPad T40-2374 laptop keyboard

In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan. Although Ali won the battle, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing, and in the following years some Syrians seem to have acclaimed Muawiyah as a rival caliph.[34] TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6946 laptop keyboard

Ali was assassinated in 661, by a Kharijite partisan. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fourth Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan-Muawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not establish a dynasty.[35][36] This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Mu'awiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.[37] TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

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After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". After making every one else fight,[38] the Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. HP G72-b67CA Laptop Keyboard

Syria would remain the base of Umayyad power until the end of the dynasty in 750 AD. However, this Dynasty became reborn in Cordoba (Al Andalus, today's Portugal and Spain) in the form of an Emirate and then a Caliphate, lasting until 1031 AD. Muslim rule continued in Iberia for another 500 years in several forms: Taifas, Berber kingdoms, and under the Kingdom of Granada until the 16th century AD. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

In the year 712, Muhammad bin Qasim, an Umayyad general sailed from the khaleej into Sindh in Pakistan and conquered both the Sindh and the Punjab regions along the Indus river. The conquest of Sindh and Punjab, in modern day Pakistan, although costly, were major gains for the Umayyad Caliphate. However, SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

further gains were halted by Hindu Kingdoms in India in the battle of Rajasthan. The Arabs tried to invade India but they were defeated by the north Indian king Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty and by the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty in the early 8th century. After this the Arab chroniclers admit that the Caliph Mahdi, “gave up the project of conquering any part of India'.”  Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

During the later period of its existence and particularly from 1031 AD under the Ta'ifa system of Islamic Emirates (Princedoms) in the southern half of Iberia, the Emirate/Sultanate of Granada maintained its independence largely due to the payment of Tributes to the northern Christian Kingdoms which began to gradually expand south at its expense from 1031. HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard

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