Indonesia

Indonesia

Indonesia (i/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ in-də-nee-zhə or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ in-doh-nee-zee-ə), officially the Republic of Indonesia(Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Indonesian pronunciation: [rɛpʊblik ɪndonesia]), is a country in Southeast Asia andOceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 17,508 islands.[5] It has 34 provinces with over 238 million people, HP G62-a05SG Laptop Keyboard

and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard

 Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's sixteenth largest by nominal GDP and fifteenthlargest by purchasing power parity. SONY VAIO VGN-CR520E Laptop Keyboard

The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. HP G62-225NR Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during theAge of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, SONY VAIO VGN NR260E/W Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia secured its independenceafter World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters,corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change. HP Pavilion G60-230 Laptop Keyboard

Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest—and politically dominant—ethnic group are the Javanese. A shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, HP Pavilion DV6-1010ea Laptop Keyboard

"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity"literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level ofbiodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread.[6][7] SONY 148781311 Laptop Keyboard

Fossils and the remains of tools show that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", between 1.5 million years ago and as recently as 35,000 years ago.[15][16][17] Homo sapiensreached the region by around 45,000 years ago.[18] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

 In 2011 evidence was uncovered in neighbouring East Timor, showing that 42,000 years ago these early settlers had high-level maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.[19] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, pushed the indigenous Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.[20] HP Pavilion dv6-2117eo Laptop Keyboard

Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,[21]allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries BCE.[22] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[23][24] HP AEUT3U00140 Laptop Keyboard

From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism andBuddhism that were imported with it.[25][26] Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and HinduMataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, ACER ZU2 Laptop Keyboard

leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram'sPrambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.[27]  HP 576835-001 Laptop Keyboard

Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[28] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences,  DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard

which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[29] The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.[30] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.[31] DELL Vostro 3500 Laptop Keyboard

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.[32] Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the Indonesian National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Japanese occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,[33][34] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.[35] A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.[36] Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.[37][38][39][40] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and the resulting conflict ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence[38][41] (with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969).[42] SONY VAIO VGN-AR270P laptop keyboard

Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).[43] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.[44][45][46] HP Pavilion DV6-1010ea laptop keyboard

Around 500,000 people are estimated to have been killed.[47][48] The head of the military, General Suharto, outmaneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration[49] was supported by the US government,[50][51][52] HP V107046AS1 laptop keyboard

 and encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.[33][53][54] HP Pavilion dv3-2155mx laptop keyboard

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis.[55] This led to popular protest against the New Order which led to Suharto's resignation in May 1998.[56] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.[57] HP Pavilion dv6-2117eo laptop keyboard

Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism slowed progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian disconSONY VAIO VGN-NW11S/S Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia[60] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislativebranches.[61] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/V Laptop Keyboard

The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.[62] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.[63] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.[64] Compaq Presario CQ56-105EW Laptop Keyboard

The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members.[65] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.[61] Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.[66] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.[67] DELL V100830AS1 Laptop Keyboard

Most civil disputes appear before a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; HP AEUT5U00010 Laptop Keyboard

a State Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases.[68] HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relationssince the Suharto "New Order" have been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.[70] Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.[65] ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard

The nation restored relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.[68] Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950,[71] and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation).[65] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/V Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia is signatory to theASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the WTO, and has historically been a member of OPEC, although it withdrew in 2008 as it was no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.[65] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.[72] The deadliest bombing killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Baliresort town of Kuta in 2002.[73] The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia'stourism industry and foreign investment prospects.[74] SAMSUNG N148 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes marines), and Air Force(TNI–AU).[75] The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

 and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.[76] One of the reforms following the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in parliament; nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.[77] ASUS F5Z laptop keyboard

Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.[78][79] Following a sporadic thirty-year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard

a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.[80] In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.[81] SONY VAIO VGN-NW320F/T laptop keyboard

Administratively, Indonesia consists of 34 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), which are further subdivided into districts (kecamatan or distrik in Papua and West Papua), and again into administrative villages (either desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in West Sumatra, or gampong in Aceh). COMPAQ Presario CQ40-107AU laptop keyboard

Village is the lowest level of government administration in Indonesia. Furthermore, a village is divided into several community groups (Rukun-Warga (RW)) which are further divided into neighbourhood groups (Rukun-Tetangga (RT)). In Java the desa (village) is divided further into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), these units are the same as Rukun-Warga. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, HP 413554-001 Laptop Keyboard

the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief). HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard

The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create certain elements of an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia Law (Islamic law).[82] ACER AD0405HB-GD3 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

 Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution and its willingness to join Indonesia as a republic.[83] Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was split into Papua and West Papua in February 2003.[84][85] Jakarta is the country's special capital region.  APPLE MacBook Pro 15 inch MA463KH A Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N, and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.[86] These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo, Compaq Presario C733TU Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor. Indonesia shares maritime borders across narrow straits with Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Palau to the north, and with Australia to the south. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.[87] SONY NSK-S8101 Laptop Keyboard

At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area.[88] Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,[89] although Java, the world's most populous island,[90] has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft),  Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

 Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.[91] TOSHIBA KFRSBA064A laptop keyboard

Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerousvolcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,[92] including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, HP G61-455EE laptop keyboard

was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,[93] and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However,volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.[94] HP Pavilion dv6-2164sl laptop keyboard

Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70–125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).[95] Compaq Presario CQ62 laptop keyboard

Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil),[96] and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.[97] The islands of the Sunda Shelf(Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to the Asian mainland, and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover approximately 60% of the country.[98] In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. ACER Aspire 4720 Laptop Keyboard

Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna.[99] Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.[100] SONY VAIO VGN-N220E/W Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.[101] Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, ACER Aspire 5540 Laptop Keyboard

estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.[8] Indonesia is one of Coral Triangle countries with the world's greatest diversity of coral reef fish with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only.[102] The British naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution and peace of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.[103] Known as the Wallace Line, HP Mini 110-1038TU Laptop Keyboard

it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.[104] The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[103] APPLE MacBook Air A1304 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[105] Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; HP G61-435ST Laptop Keyboard

and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[105] Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.[106] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

and 15 identified as critically endangered, includingBali Starling,[107] Sumatran Orangutan,[108] and Javan Rhinoceros.[107] Much of Indonesia's deforestation is caused by forest clearing for the palm oil Industry, which has cleared 18 million hectares of forest for palm oil expansion. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

Palm oil expansion requires land reallocation as well as changes to the local and natural ecosystems. Palm oil expansion can generate wealth for local communities if done right. If down wrong it can degrade ecosystems and cause social conflicts.[109] SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia has a mixed economy in which both the private sector and government play significant roles.[110] The country is the largest economy in Southeast Asia and a member of the G-20 major economies.[111] Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product (nominal), as of 2012 was US$928.274 billion with estimated nominal per capita GDP was US$3,797, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,943 (international dollars).[112] ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard

June 2011: At World Economic Forum on East Asia, Indonesian president said Indonesia will be in the top ten countries with the strongest economy within the next decade. The gross domestic product (GDP) is about $1 trillion[3] and the debt ratio to the GDP is 26%.[113] The industry sector is the economy's largest and accounts for 46.4% of GDP (2010), this is followed by services (37.1%)HP G42-363LA Laptop Keyboard

and agriculture (16.5%). However, since 2010, the service sector has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 48.9% of the total labor force, this has been followed by agriculture (38.3%) and industry (12.8%).[114] Agriculture, however, had been the country's largest employer for centuries.[115][116]  HP Pavilion dv6-2180ep laptop keyboard

According to World Trade Organization data, Indonesia was the 27th biggest exporting country in the world in 2010, moving up three places from a year before.[117] Indonesia's main export markets (2009) are Japan (17.28%), Singapore (11.29%), the United States (10.81%), and China (7.62%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Singapore (24.96%), China (12.52%),HP Pavilion DV6-1119ez laptop keyboard

and Japan (8.92%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs. And the country's major export commodities include oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, rubber, and textiles.[118] ACER Aspire One A150-1905 laptop keyboard

In the 1960s the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, Compaq Presario CQ71-411EZ laptop keyboard

and negligible investment. Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment. (See Berkeley Mafia). Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, HP Pavilion dv6-2132et laptop keyboard

and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates, averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981.[119] Following further reforms in the late 1980s,[120] foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-orientedmanufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.[121][122] TOSHIBA Satellite P505D-S8934 laptop keyboard

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian financial crisis of 1997–98. During the crisis there were sudden and large capital outflows leading the rupiah to go into free fall. Against the US dollar the rupiah dropped from about Rp 2,600 in late 1997 to a low point of around Rp 17,000 some months later and the economy shrank by a remarkable 13.7%. These developments led to widespread economic distress across the economy and contributed to the political crisis of 1998 which saw Suharto resign as president.[123] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

The rupiah later stabilised in the Rp. 8,000-10,000 range[124] and a slow but steady economic recovery ensued. However political instability, slow economic reform, and corruption slowed the recovery.[6][7] Transparency International, for example, has since ranked Indonesia below 100 in its Corruption Perceptions Index.[125][126] Since 2007, however, with the improvement in banking sector and domestic consumption, national economic growth has accelerated to over 6% annually[127][128][129] HP Pavilion dv6-2002ew Laptop Keyboard

and this helped the country weather the 2008–2009 global recession.[130] The Indonesian economy performed strongly during the Global Financial Crisis and in 2012 its GDP grew by over 6%.[131] The country regained its investment grade rating in late 2011 after losing it in the 1997.[132]However, as of 2011, an estimated 12.5% of the population lived below the poverty line and the official open unemployment rate was 6.7%.[118] HP Pavilion dv6-2006tx Laptop Keyboard

ccording to the 2010 national census, the population of Indonesia is 237.6 million,[133] with high population growth at 1.9%.[134] 58% of the population lives on Java,[133] the world's most populous island.[90] In 1961 the first post-colonial census gave a total population of 97 million.[135] Despite a fairly effective family planning program that has been in place since the 1960s, population is expected to grow to around 265 million by 2020 and 306 million by 2050.[136]  HP Mini 110-1032NR Laptop Keyboard

There are around 300 distinct native ethnic groups in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects.[137][138] Most Indonesians are descended from Austronesian-speaking peoples whose languages can be traced to Proto-Austronesian (PAn), which possibly originated in Taiwan. SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard

Another major grouping are Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia.[87][139] The largest ethnic group is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant.[140] TheSundanese, ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups.[141]  HP 417525-B31 Laptop Keyboard

A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.[142] Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.[143][144][145] Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising 3–4% of the population.[146] Much of the country's privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-Indonesian-controlled,[147][148] which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.[149][150][151] SONY VGN-FE28H Laptop Keyboard

The official national language is Indonesian, a form of Malay. It is based on the prestige dialect of Malay, that of theJohor-Riau Sultanate, which for centuries had been the lingua franca of the archipelago, standards of which are the official languages in Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. Lenovo Ideapad G565 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian is universally taught in schools, consequently it is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It was promoted by Indonesian nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language under the name Bahasa Indonesia on the proclamation of independence in 1945. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard

Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages and dialects, often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken as the language of the largest ethnic group.[118] On the other hand, Papua has over 270 indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages,[152] in a region of about 2.7 million people. Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard

While religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,[153] the government officially recognizes only six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism.[154] Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with 87.2% of Indonesians being Muslim according to the 2010 census.[155] HP Pavilion dv3-2320tx Laptop Keyboard

On 21 May 2011 the Indonesian Sunni-Shia Council (MUHSIN) was established. The council aims to hold gatherings, dialogues and social activities. It was an answer to violence committed in the name of religion.[156] The majority of Muslims in Indonesia are Sunni. 9% of the population was Christian, 3% Hindu, and 2% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese,[157] TOSHIBA Satellite P500 Laptop Keyboard

and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.[158] Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.[159] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ440 Laptop Keyboard

Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries,[160][161] and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period.[162][163][164] A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local customs and beliefs.[165] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia has about 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural identities developed over centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. GATEWAY M-6834 Laptop Keyboard

Textiles such as batik,ikat, ulos and songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant. HP Mini 110-3112tu Laptop Keyboard

Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling.[166] The most popular sports are badminton and football. Indonesian players have won the Thomas Cup (the world team championship of men's badminton) thirteen of the twenty-six times that it has been held since 1949, as well as numerous Olympic medals since the sport gained full Olympic status in 1992. Its women have won the Uber Cup, SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard

the female equivalent of the Thomas Cup, twice, in 1994 and 1996. Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as, caci in Flores, and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art. HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.[167] Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.[168] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. The Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,[169] although it declined significantly in the early 1990s.[170] Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.[169] Compaq Presario CQ57-319WM Laptop Keyboard

The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians;[171] and proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist.[172][173] Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly rooted oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.[174] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media.[175] The TV market includes ten national commercial networks, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008,[176] Internet usage was estimated at 12.5% in September 2009.[177] More than 30 million cell phones are sold in Indonesia each year, and 27 percent of them are local brands.[178] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia has the largest economy in Southeast Asia and is one of the emerging market economies of the world. The country is also a member of G-20 major economies and classified as a newly industrialized country.[11] It has amarket economy in which the government plays a significant role through ownership of state-owned enterprises (the central government owns more than 160 enterprises) DELL NSK-DJD01 Laptop Keyboard

and the administration of prices of a range of basic goods including fuel, rice, and electricity. In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis that began in mid-1997 the government took custody of a significant portion of private sector assets through acquisition ofnonperforming bank loans and corporate assets through the debt restructuring process. Since 2004 the economy has recovered and growth has accelerated to over 6% in recent years.[12] HP G61-320US Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia regained its investment grade rating from Fitch Rating in late 2011, and from Moody's Rating in early 2012, after losing its investment grade rating in December 1997 at the onset of the Asian financial crisis which Indonesia spent more than Rp450 trillion ($50 billion) to bail out lenders from banks. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Fitch raised Indonesia's long-term and local currency debt rating to BBB- from BB+ with both ratings is stable. Fitch also predicted that economy will grow at least 6.0% on average per year through 2013, despite a less conducive global economic climate. Moody’s raised Indonesia's foreign and local currency bond ratings to Baa3 from Ba1 with a stable outlook.[13] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time of Soekarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation,  HP G42-372LA Laptop Keyboard

shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment. Following President Soekarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment. (See Berkeley Mafia). Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates, averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981.[14] High levels of regulation and a dependence on declining oil prices,  HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

growth slowed to an average of 4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988. A range of economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s including a managed devaluation of the rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and de-regulation of the financial sector,[15] Foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.[16][17] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard

GDP per capita grew 545% from 1970 to 1980 as a result of the sudden increase in oil export revenues from 1973 to 1979.[18]

High levels of economic growth from 1987–1997 masked a number of structural weaknesses in Indonesia's economy. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Growth came at a high cost in terms of weak and corrupt institutions, severe public indebtedness through mismanagement of the financial sector, the rapid depletion of Indonesia’s natural resources, and a culture of favors and corruption in the business elite.[19] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

 Corruption particularly gained momentum in the 1990s, reaching to the highest levels of the political hierarchy as Suharto became the most corrupt leader according toTransparency International's corrupt leaders list.[20][21] As a result, the legal system was very weak, and there was no effective way to enforce contracts, collect debts, or sue for bankruptcy. Banking practices were very unsophisticated, ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

with collateral-based lending the norm and widespread violation of prudential regulations, including limits on connected lending. Non-tariff barriers, rent-seeking by state-owned enterprises, domestic subsidies, barriers to domestic trade and export restrictions all created economic distortions. HP 576835-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Asian Financial Crisis that began to affect Indonesia in mid-1997 became an economic and political crisis. Indonesia's initial response was to float the rupiah, raise key domestic interest rates, and tighten fiscal policy. In October 1997, SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reached agreement on an economic reform program aimed at macroeconomic stabilization and elimination of some of the country's most damaging economic policies, such as the National Car Program and the clove monopoly, GATEWAY AEMA2TAU015 Laptop Keyboard

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both involving family members of President Soeharto. The rupiah remained weak, however, and President Soeharto was forced to resign in May 1998. In August 1998, Indonesia and the IMF agreed on an Extended Fund Facility (EFF) under President B.J Habibie that included significant structural reform targets. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

President Abdurrahman Wahid took office in October 1999, and Indonesia and the IMF signed another EFF in January 2000. The new program also has a range of economic, structural reform and governance targets. HP Pavilion dv6-2106ea Laptop Keyboard

The effects of the financial and economic crisis were severe. By November 1997, rapid currency depreciation had seen public debt reach US$60 bn, imposing severe strains on the government's budget.[22] In 1998, real GDP contracted by 13.7%. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 and real GDP growth for the year was 0.3%. Inflation reached 77% in 1998 but slowed to 2% in 1999. HP G42-380LA Laptop Keyboard

The rupiah, which had been in the Rp 2,600/USD1 range at the start of August 1997 fell to 11,000/USD1 by January 1998, with spot rates around 15,000 for brief periods during the first half of 1998.[23] It returned to 8,000/USD1 range at the end of 1998 and has generally traded in the Rp 8,000–10,000/USD1 range ever since, with fluctuations that are relatively predictable and gradual. SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

In late 2005 Indonesia faced a 'mini-crisis' due to international oil prices rises and imports. The currency reached Rp 12,000/USD1 before stabilizing. The government was forced to cut its massive fuel subsidies, which were planned to cost $14 billion for 2005, in October.[24] This led to a more than doubling in the price of consumer fuels, resulting in double-digit inflation. The situation had stabilized, but the economy continued to struggle with inflation at 17% in 2005. HP Pavilion dv6-2160sv Laptop Keyboard

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For 2006, Indonesia's economic outlook was more positive. Economic growth accelerated to 5.1% in 2004 and reached 5.6% in 2005. Real per capita income has reached fiscal year 1996/1997 levels. Growth was driven primarily by domestic consumption, which accounts for roughly three-fourths of Indonesia's gross domestic product. The Jakarta Stock Exchange was the best performing market in Asia in 2004 up by 42%.Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

Problems that continue to put a drag on growth include low foreign investment levels, bureaucratic red tape, and very widespread corruption which causes 51.43 trillion Rupiah or 5.6573 billion US Dollar or approximately 1.4% of GDP to be lost on a yearly basis.[25] However, there is very strong optimism with the conclusion of peaceful elections during the year 2004 and the election of the reformist president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. HP Pavilion dv6-2053eo laptop keyboard

The unemployment rate in February 2007 was 9.75%.[26] Despite a slowing global economy, Indonesia’s economic growth accelerated to a ten-year high of 6.3% in 2007. This growth rate was sufficient to reduce poverty from 17.8% to 16.6% based on the Government’s poverty line and reversed the recent trend towards jobless growth, with unemployment falling to 8.46% in February 2008.[27][28] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7340 laptop keyboard

Unlike many of its more export-dependent neighbors, it has managed to skirt the recession, helped by strong domestic demand (which makes up about two-thirds of the economy) and a government fiscal stimulus package of about 1.4% of GDP, announced earlier this year. After India and China, Indonesia is currently the third fastest growing economy in the Group of Twenty (G20) industrialized and developing economies. Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

The $512 billion economy expanded 4.4% in the first quarter from a year earlier and last month, the IMF revised its 2009 forecast for the country to 3-4% from 2.5%. Indonesia enjoyed stronger fundamentals with the authorities implemented wide-ranging economic and financial reforms, including a rapid reduction in public and external debt, strengthening of corporate and banking sector balance sheets and reducing bank vulnerabilities through higher capitalization and better supervision.[29] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Since the late 1980s, Indonesia has made significant changes to its regulatory framework to encourage economic growth. This growth was financed largely from private investment, both foreign and domestic. U.S. investors dominated the oil and gas sector and undertook some of Indonesia's largest mining projects. HP Pavilion dv3-2157cl laptop keyboard

In addition, the presence of US banks, manufacturers, and service providers expanded, especially after the industrial and financial sector reforms of the 1980s. Other major foreign investors included India, Japan, the United Kingdom, Singapore, the Netherlands, Qatar, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea. HP Pavilion ze2315us laptop keyboard

The economic crisis made continued private financing imperative but problematic. New foreign investment approvals fell by almost two-thirds between 1997 and 1999. The crisis further highlighted areas where additional reform was needed. Frequently cited areas for improving the investment climate were establishment of a functioning legal and judicial system, SONY VAIO PCG-FRV28 laptop keyboard

adherence to competitive processes, and adoption of internationally acceptable accounting and disclosure standards. Despite improvements in the laws in recent years, Indonesia's intellectual property rights regime remains weak; lack of effective enforcement is a major concern. Under Suharto, HP Pavilion dm3-1040EV Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia had moved toward private provision of public infrastructure, including electric power, toll roads, and telecommunications. The financial crisis brought to light serious weaknesses in the process of dispute resolution, however, particularly in the area of private infrastructure projects. HP G56-118CA Laptop Keyboard

Although Indonesia continued to have the advantages of a large labor force, abundant natural resources and modern infrastructure, private investment in new projects largely ceased during the crisis. DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

As of 28 June 2010, the Indonesia Stock Exchange had 341 listed companies with a combined market capitalization of $269.9 billion.[30] As at November 2010, two thirds of the market capitalization was in the form of foreign funds and only around 1% of the Indonesian population have stock investments.[31] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

 Efforts are further being made to improve the business and investment environment. Within the World Bank's Doing Business Survey,[32] Indonesia rose to 122 out of 178 countries in 2010, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

from 129 in the previous year. Despite these efforts, the rank is still below regional peers and an unfavourable investment climate persists. For example, potential foreign investors and their executive staff cannot maintain own bank accounts in Indonesia, unless they are tax-paying local residents (paying tax in Indonesia for their worldwide income)[citation needed].  DELL 9J.N6782.A01 Laptop Keyboard

From 1990 to 2010, Indonesian companies have been involved in 3,757 mergers and acquisitions as either acquiror or target with a total known value of $137bn.[33]In 2010, 609 transactions have been announced which is a new record. Numbers had increased by 19% compared to 2009. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The value of deals in 2010 was 17 bil. USD which is the second highest number ever. In the entire year of 2012, Indonesia realised total investments $32.5 billion, surpassing its annual target $25 billion, Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM) reported on January 22. The primary investments were in the mining, transport and chemicals sectors.[34] HP Pavilion dv6-2155tx Laptop Keyboard

In 2011, the Indonesian government announced a new Masterplan (known as the MP3EI, or Masterplan Perceptatan dan Perluasan Pembangunan Ekonomi Indonesia, theMasterplan to Accelerate and Expand Economic Development in Indonesia). The aim of the Masterplan was to encourage increased investment, particularly ininfrastructure projects across Indonesia.[35] DELL XPS M1530 Laptop Keyboard

U.S. exports to Indonesia in 1999 totaled $2.0 billion, down significantly from $4.5 billion in 1997. The main exports were construction equipment, machinery, aviation parts, chemicals, and agricultural products. U.S. imports from Indonesia in 1999 totaled $9.5 billion and consisted primarily of clothing, machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, natural rubber, and footwear. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Economic assistance to Indonesia is coordinated through the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI), formed in 1989. It includes 19 donor countries and 13 international organizations that meet annually to coordinate donor assistance. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided development assistance to Indonesia since 1950. Initial assistance focused on the most urgent needs of the new republic, including food aid, infrastructure rehabilitation, health care, and training. Through the 1970s, a time of great economic growth in Indonesia, USAID played a major role in helping the country achieve self-sufficiency in rice production and in reducing the birth rate. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

USAID's current program aims to support Indonesia as it recovers from the financial crisis by providing food aid, employment generating activities, and maintaining critical public health services. USAID is also providing technical advisers to help the Indonesian Government implement economic reforms and fiscal decentralization and is supporting democratization and civil society development activities through non-governmental organizations. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia was the only Asian member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) outside of the Middle East until 2008 and is currently a net oil importer. In 1999, Crude and condensate output averaged 1.5 million barrels (240,000 m3) per day, and in the 1998 calendar year the oil and gas sector, including refining, contributed approximately 9% to GDP. As of 2005, TOSHIBA A000014900 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian crude oil and condensate output was 1.07 million barrels (170,000 m3) per day. This is a substantial decline from the 1990s, due primarily to aging oil fields and a lack of investment in oil production equipment. This decline in production has been accompanied by a substantial increase in domestic consumption, about 5.4% per year, leading to an estimated US$1.2 billion cost for importing oil in 2005. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The state owns all petroleum and mineral rights. Foreign firms participate through production-sharing and work contracts. Oil and gas contractors are required to finance all exploration, production, and development costs in their contract areas; they are entitled to recover operating, exploration, and development costs out of the oil and gas produced. HP G62-229WM Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment. As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil products. It had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$ 7 billion in 2004 .[39] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages .[40] The government has stated the cuts in subsidies are aimed at reducing the budget deficit to 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.6% last year. At the same time, in order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens. HP Probook 4710S Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia is the world's largest tin market. Although mineral production traditionally centered on bauxite, silver, and tin, Indonesia is expanding its copper, nickel, gold, and coal output for export markets. SAMSUNG NP-NB30-JP01 laptop keyboard

In mid-1993, the Department of Mines and Energy reopened the coal sector to foreign investment, with the result that the leading Indonesian coal producer now is a joint venture between UK firms - BP and Rio Tinto. Total coal production reached 74 million metric tons in 1999, including exports of 55 million tons. HP Mini 110-3102st laptop keyboard

From January to August 2011, the coal production was 235 million tons and targeted 2011 coal production between 340 to 370 million tons. Not all of the productions can be exported due to there are Domestic Market Obligation (DMO) regulation which should fullfil the domestic market. Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard

In 2012, the DMO is 24.72%. And starting 2014, there are no low-grade coal exports allowed, so the upgraded brown coal process which crank up the calorie value of coal from 4,500 kcal/kg to 6,100 kcal/kg will be built in South Kalimantan and South Sumatra.[41] HP Mini 110-3040ss laptop keyboard

Two US firms operate three copper/gold mines in Indonesia, with a Canadian and British firm holding significant other investments in nickel and gold, respectively. In 1998, the value of Indonesian gold production was $1 billion and copper, $843 million. Receipts from gold, copper, and coal comprised 84% of the $3 billion. Earned in 1998 by the mineral mining sector. India fortune groups like Vedanta Resources and Tata Group have significant mining operations in Indonesia. SONY Vaio VGN-FW139E laptop keyboard

April 2011: With additional of Tayan, West Kalimantan Alumina project which produce 5% of the world's alumina production, Indonesia will be the world's second largest Alumina producer. The project will not make the ores to become Aluminium due to there are 100 types of Alumina derivatives which can be developed further by other companies in Indonesia.[42]  HP Mini 110-3536tu laptop keyboard

Since the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s which contributed to the end of the Suharto regime in May 1998, Indonesia’s public finances have undergone a major transformation. The financial crisis caused a huge economic contraction and a commensurate decline in public spending. Debt and public subsidies increased dramatically while development spending was sharply curtailed.  ASUS X88S laptop keyboard

Now, one decade later, Indonesia has moved out of crisis and into a situation in which the country once again has sufficient financial resources to address its development needs. This change has come about as a result of prudent macroeconomic policies, the most important of which has been very low budget deficits. Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

Also, the way in which the government spends money has been transformed by the 2001 "big bang" decentralization, which has resulted in over one-third of all government spending being transferred to sub-national governments by 2006. Equally important, in 2005, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

spiraling international oil prices caused Indonesia’s domestic fuel subsidies to run out of control, threatening the country’s hard won macroeconomic stability. Despite the political risks of major price hikes in fuel driving more general inflation, the government took the brave decision to slash fuel subsidies. SONY V-0702BIAS1-US laptop keyboard

This decision freed up an extra US$10 billion for government spending on development programs.[54] Meanwhile, by 2006 an additional US$5 billion had become available thanks to a combination of increased revenues boosted by steady growth of the overall economy, and declining debt service payments, HP Mini 210-1199DX laptop keyboard

a hangover from the economic crisis.[54] This meant that in 2006 the government had an extra US$15 billion to spend on development programs.[54] The country has not seen “fiscal space” of such magnitude since the revenue windfall experienced during the oil boom of the mid-1970s. HP Pavilion dv6-2143ca laptop keyboard

However, an important difference is that the 1970s oil revenue windfall was just that: a lucky and unforeseen financial boon. In contrast, the current fiscal space has been achieved as a direct result of sound and carefully thought through government policy decisions. SONY VAIO VGN-N350N laptop keyboard

However, while Indonesia has made significant progress in freeing up financial resources for its development needs, and this situation is set to continue in the next few years, subsidies continue to place a heavy burden on the government’s budget. The 2005 reductions on subsidies notwithstanding, total subsidies still accounted for close to US$ 30 billion in government spending in 2012, or over 15% of the total budget.[54] TOSHIBA Satellite L550-ST5701 laptop keyboard

One of the results of the Habibie government (May 1998 to August 2001) to decentralize power across the country in 2001 was that increasingly high shares of government spending have been channeled through sub-national governments. As a result, provincial and district governments in Indonesia now spend around 40% of total public funds, which represents a level of fiscal decentralization that is even higher than the OECD average.  HP Mini 110-3135dx Laptop Keyboard

Given the level of decentralization that has occurred in Indonesia and the fiscal space now available, the Indonesian government has a unique opportunity to revamp the country’s neglected public services. If carefully managed, this could allow the lagging regions of eastern Indonesian to catch up with other more affluent areas of the country in terms of social indicators. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

It could also enable Indonesian to focus on the next generation of reforms, namely improving quality of public services and targeted infrastructure provision. In effect, the correct allocation of public funds and the careful management of those funds once they have been allocated have become the main issues for public spending in Indonesia going forward. IBM Thinkpad R61i Laptop Keyboard

For example, while education spending has now reached 17.2% of total public spending ─ the highest share of any sector and a share of 3.9% of GDP in 2006, compared with only 2.0% of GDP in 2001 ─ in contrast total public health spending remains below 1.0% of GDP.[54] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-150EP Laptop Keyboard

Meanwhile, public infrastructure investment has still not fully recovered from its post-crisis lows and remains at only 3.4% of GDP.[54] One other area of concern is that the current level of expenditure on administration is excessively high. Standing at 15% in 2006, this suggests a significant waste of public resources.[54][55] HP Mini 210-2030ew Laptop Keyboard

Inflation has long been another problem in Indonesia. Because of political turmoil, the country had once suffered hyperinflation, with 1,000% annual inflation between 1964 and 1967,[60] and this had been enough to create severe poverty and hunger.[61] Even though the economy recovered very quickly during the first decade of New Order administration (1970–1981), HP Compaq G50-118NR Laptop Keyboard

never once was the inflation less than 10% annually. The inflation slowed during mid-1980s, however, the economy was also languid due to the decrease of oil price that reduced its export revenue dramatically. HP Pavilion tx2627cl laptop keyboard

The economy was again experiencing rapid growth between 1989-1997 due to the improving export-oriented manufacturing sector, still the inflation rate was higher than economic growth, and this caused widening gap among several Indonesians. The inflation peaked in 1998 during the Asian financial crisis, with over 58%, causing the raise in poverty level as bad as the 1960s crisis.[62] ACER Extensa 5235 laptop keyboard

During the economic recovery and growth in recent years, the government has been trying to decline the inflation rate. However, it seems that Indonesian inflation has been affected by the global fluctuation and domestic market competition.[63] As of 2010, the inflation rate was approximately 7%, when its economic growth was 6%. To date, inflation is affecting Indonesian lower middle class, especially those who can't afford food after price hikes.[64][65] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5242BN laptop keyboard

The Fitch Group is a jointly owned subsidiary of FIMALAC and Hearst Corporation. On April 12, 2012, Hearst increased their stake in the Fitch Group to 50%.[2] Fitch Ratings and Fitch Solutions are part of the Fitch Group. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Fitch Ratings, dual-headquartered in New York and London, was one of the three Nationally Recognized Statistical Rating Organizations (NRSRO) designated by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission in 1975, together with Moody's andStandard & Poor's. It is considered one of the "Big Three credit rating agencies" (Standard & Poor's, Moody's Investor Service and Fitch Ratings). [3] SONY AEGD1U00020 laptop keyboard

The firm was founded by John Knowles Fitch on December 24, 1913 in New York City as the Fitch Publishing Company. It merged with London-based IBCA Limited in December 1997. In 2000 Fitch acquired both Chicago-based Duff & Phelps Credit Rating Co. (April) and Thomson Financial BankWatch (December). SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard

Fitch Ratings is the smallest of the "big three" NRSROs, covering a more limited share of the market than S&P and Moody's, though it has grown with acquisitions and frequently positions itself as a "tie-breaker" when the other two agencies have ratings similar, but not equal, in scale. SAMSUNG N150 laptop keyboard

In September 2011, Fitch Group announced the sale of Algorithmics (risk analytics software) to IBM for $387 million.[4]The deal closed on October 21, 2011. [5] HP G56 laptop keyboard