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Doha
Doha is the capital city of the state of Qatar. Located on the coast of the Persian Gulf, it had a population of 998,651 in 2008,[1] and is also one of themunicipalities of Qatar. Doha is Qatar's largest city, with over 60% of the nation's population residing in Doha or its surrounding suburbs, and is also the economic centre of the country. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard
Doha also serves as the seat of government of Qatar, which is ruled by Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani. Doha is home to the Education City, an area devoted to research and education. Doha was the site of the first ministerial-level meeting of the Doha Development Round of World Trade Organization negotiations. DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard
The city of Doha held the 2006 Asian Games, which was the largest Asian Games ever held. Doha also hosted the 2011 Pan Arab Games and most of the games at the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. Doha hosted the UNFCCC Climate Negotiations (COP 18)December 2012 and will host a large number of the venues for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The World Petroleum Councilheld the 20th World Petroleum Conference in Doha in December 2011.[2] HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
In 1825, the city of Doha was founded under the name Al-Bidda. The name "Doha" came from the Arabic ad-dawḥa, "the big tree." The reference might be to a prominent tree that stood at the site where the original fishing village arose, on the eastern coast of the Qatar peninsula. Or it might have been derived from "dohat" --ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard
Arabic for bay or gulf — referring to the Doha Bay area surrounding Corniche. In 1825, during the war between Qatar andBahrain, Doha had been severely damaged and Abu Dhabi was helping Bahrain.[3] In 1882, Al Rayyan built the Al Wajbah fortress, in southwestern Doha. The following year, Sheikh Qassim bin Mohammed Al Thani led a Qatari army to victory against the Ottomans.
The city was made capital of the British protectorate of Qatar in 1916, and became the nation's capital following the independence of Qatar in 1971. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
In 1917, the Al Koot Fort fortress, which is located in the center of the city, was built by Sheikh Abdulla Bin Qassim Al-Thani. Still, during the early 20th century, much of Qatar's economy depended on fishing and pearling, and Doha had about 350 pearling boats. However, after the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearls in the 1930s, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R50E Laptop Keyboard
the whole region, including the town of Doha, suffered a major depression and Qatar was plunged into poverty. This lasted until in the late 1930s, when oilwas discovered. However, the exploration and exportation was halted due to the second world war. Today the nation as a whole produces over 800,000 barrels of oil daily. In 1969, the Government House opened. Today it is considered to be Qatar's most prominent landmark. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
The first mention of Al Bidda in English sources appeared in 1765, on a rather inaccurate map by Carsten Niebhur, in which Al Bidda is referred to as Guttur. Carsten had not visited Qatar personally, and had relied on the knowledge of local Arabs and English sea captains to fill in this section of his map. In the nineteenth century, Doha was little more than a small village which was known as Al Bidda. In 1820, Major Colebrook described it thus: Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
However, the small size of the place didn't stop it from being bombarded by the British vessel Vestal in 1821, after the city had been deemed to have broken a general treaty of peace. They were bombed again in 1841 after Al-Suwaidi, the Sudanese chief who then ruled Al Bidda, ACER TravelMate 4230 Series Laptop Keyboard
was accused of habouring an outlaw, and the village was destroyed in 1847 after its leader – Bin Tarif Bin Salamah – had been killed in battle against the Al Khalifas of Bahrain near Fuweirat. These major disturbances were probably also punctuated by the customary raids of the nomadic Bedouin; raids which would not stop for another hundred years. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard
At some point after this destruction, the Al Thani family moved from Fuwairet to Al Bidda, for when the British Resident visited the village he found that Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani was now chief of Doha. Doha was now a separate village close to Al Bidda, and in between Al Bidda and Doha lay little Doha, only four hundred yards form Al Bidda. Paradoxically, the roots of its future as the capital of Qatar lay when Doha, along with Al Wakrah, SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard
were attacked again – by Bahrain in 1867, aided by Abu Dhabi. Doha and Al Wakra attempted to retaliate in a very bloody sea battle.
The British, who wished to avoid disruption to trade and were angry that the Al Khalifas of Bahrain had broken a treaty forbidding maritime warfare in the area, came to Qatar and were met by the headman of Al Bidda, Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani, on behalf of "all the Sheikhs and tribes" in the peninsula. This meeting was, eventually, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
to lead to Qatar becoming a nation state under the Al Thanis. For a time Ottomans took up a rather nominal control of the country, with a base in Doha, with the acquiescence of Qassim Al Thani, who wished to consolidate his control of the area. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
However, disagreement over tribute and interference in internal affairs arose which eventually led to battle in 1893. The Ottomans were defeated and retreated to their small fort in the centre of Doha, where they remained until they finally left during the first world war. Partly as a result of the departure of the Ottomans, Qatar was made a formal British protectorate in 1916, with Doha as its capital. TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard
At about 1900 Doha had a population of around 12,000 and around 350 pearling boats. However, the growth of trade in cultured pearls from Japan began to impact upon the region, and this was exacerbated by the depression of the 1930s. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X301 2779 Laptop Keyboard
The exploitation of Qatar's oil reserves after the end of the second world war was to save the city, although it was to be some time before the source of their current and future wealth – natural gas – was exploited. ACER Aspire 5745 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Buildings at the time were simple dwellings of one or two rooms, built from mud, stone and coral. However, the Amirs of Qatar were not long in exploiting the new-found wealth, and slum areas were quickly razed to be replaced by more modern buildings. As with other countries in the region, in this rush to modernize much of the country’s heritage was lost, and in Doha now there is only a single remaining wind tower. SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M Laptop Keyboard
The Qatar Museums Authority now works to preserve the remaining heritage. The astonishing development of Doha, and the changing shape of the bay, can be seen to this day in Qatar’s National Museum. Doha was a port of some local significance. However, the shallow water of the bay prevented bigger ships from entering the port until the 1970s, when its deep-water port was completed. Further changes followed with extensive land reclamation, which led to the crescent-shaped bay that we can see today. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-15C Laptop Keyboard
In 1973, the University of Qatar opened, and in 1975 the Qatar National Museum opened in what was originally the ruler's palace in 1912. The Al Jazeera Arabicsatellite television news channel began broadcasting from Doha in 1996. Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani currently rules in what some consider to be Qatar's most beautiful city. SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z Laptop Keyboard
Doha has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Temperatures average over 38 °C (100 °F) from May to September, and humidity is variable. Dewpoints can surpass 25 °C (77 °F) in the summer. During the summer months, the city averages almost no precipitation, and less than 20 mm (0.79 in) during other months.[5] Rainfall is scarce, at an average of 75 mm (2.95 in) per annum, falling on isolated days mostly between October to March. Winters are warm, and the temperature rarely drops below 7 °C (45 °F). HP Pavilion dv3-2304tx laptop keyboard
The demography of Doha is unusual in that the majority of residents are expatriates, with Qatari nationals forming a minority. The largest portion of expatriates in Qatar are from South-East and South Asian countries, mainly Pakistan, India, TOSHIBA Satellite L500-ST2522 laptop keyboard
Sri Lanka, Nepal, Philippines, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, with large numbers of expatriates also coming from the Levant Arab countries, North Africa, and East Asia. Doha is also home to expatriates from Germany, the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, France, South Africa, and Australia as well as many other countries from all over the world. ASUS K030662M2 laptop keyboard
In the past, expatriates in Qatar were not allowed to own land; however, now people who are not Qatari citizens can buy land in several areas of Doha, including the West Bay Lagoon, the Qatar Pearl and the new Lusail City. Ownership by foreigners in Qatar entitles them to a renewable residency permit, which allows them to live and work in Qatar. SONY VAIO VGN-CS220J/T laptop keyboard
Each month, thousands emigrate to Qatar, and as a result, Doha has witnessed explosive growth rates in population. Doha's population currently stands at around one million,[6] with the population of the city more than doubling in the past decade. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Due to the high influx of expatriates, the Qatari housing market saw a shortage of supply which led to a rise in prices and increased inflation. The gap in the housing market between supply and demand has narrowed, however, and property prices have fallen in some areas following a period which saw rents triple in some areas.[7] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
According to Qatar Chamber, expatriate workers have remitted $60bn between 2006 and 2012. 54 percent of the workers' remittances of $60bn were routed to Asian countries, followed by Arab nations that accounted for nearly half that volume (28 percent). India was the top destination of the remittances, followed by the Philippines, while the US, Egypt and the neighbouring UAE trailed.[8] COMPAQ Presario CQ45-206TU laptop keyboard
Several churches have recently been constructed in Doha, following decrees by the Emir for the allocation of land to churches. In March 2008, the first Catholic Church in Doha, Our Lady of the Rosary, was opened. The church structure is discreet and Christian symbols are not displayed on the outside of the building.[9]Today, several churches exist in Doha, including the Malankara Orthodox Church, Mar Thoma Church (affiliated with the Anglicans, but not part of the Communion), CSI Church, Syro-Malankara Church and the Pentecostal Church. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Much of Qatar's oil and natural gas wealth is visible in Doha, which is the economic centre of Qatar. Doha is home to the headquarters of the country's largest oil and gas companies, including Qatar Petroleum, Qatargas and RasGas. Doha's economy is built on the revenue the country has made from its oil and natural gas industries, and the Qatari government is rapidly trying to diversify the Qatari economy in order to move away from this dependence on oil. Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard
As a result, Doha is currently experiencing a very large boom, with the city developing very rapidly – this is mostly the result of Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa's modernization program.
Like the nearby city of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, Doha's economy is moving away from its dependency on the oil and natural gas industries, although unlike Dubai, Doha's main focus is not tourism. Doha is seeing huge amounts of growth, with the population of the city increasing by more than 30,000 between 2004 and 2006; SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard
this has caused a boom in the real estate sector, with real estate prices skyrocketing.[19] According to the BBC, as of late January 2007, Doha is now a more expensive city than Dubai in terms of real estate prices. This rate of growth has led to projects such as the Lusail City project, which is being constructed north of Doha and will eventually house 200,000 people. ACER TravelMate 4230 Series laptop keyboard
Construction is also booming in Doha, a result of increasing corporate and commercial activity there. This is most visible with the changing skyline of the city, as Doha has over 50 towers currently being constructed, the largest of which is theDubai Towers. At the same time, 39 new hotels are joining Qatar's booming tourism market, adding about 9,000 new rooms by 2009.
Qatar Airways is headquartered in the Qatar Airways Tower in Doha.[20] Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard
Education has been a major focus of the Qatari government in recent years. In addition to Qatar University, established in 1973, the government has solicited other universities to establish campuses in Doha, most notably at Education City. Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard
Education City is one of the main projects of the non-profit organization Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development. It has also launched the World Innovation Summit for Education (WISE), a global forum that brings together education stakeholders, opinion leaders and decision makers from all over the world to discuss educational issues. The first edition will be held in Doha, Qatar from November 16 to 18, 2009. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
A key player in the educational field in Qatar is the Supreme Council of Communication and Information Technology ictQATAR. Through its e-education program, ictQATAR is bringing together the power of education and ICT in Qatar.
Doha is also home to many international schools established for its expatriate communities, with dozens of different private schools currently operating in the city, such as SONY VAIO VGN-NW15L laptop keyboard
The Wall Stadium would become the world's largest underground stadium, dwarfing the Fjellhallen ice-hockey arena in Norway, and would be the main venue for the 2011 AFC Asian Cup.[25] The stadium is estimated to cost 20 million dollars. The stadium will have the latest technology and roads leading to the stadium will be easy. While the New Paralympic stadium south of the new City of Lusail will be the most advance Paralympic stadium. SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard
In 2001, Qatar also became the first country in the Middle East to hold a women's tennis tournament: Qatar holds both the Qatar Open for Women and the ladies ITF tournament. Since 2008 and at least for 3 years, the Sony Ericsson Championships (equivalent to the ATP's season-ending Championships) takes place in Doha, in the Khalifa International Tennis Complex, HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard
and features record prize money of $4.45 million (check of $1,485,000 for the winner, which represents the largest single guaranteed payout in women's tennis today[26]).
Doha submitted a bid for the 2016 Olympics.[27] On June 4, 2008, the city was eliminated from the shortlist for the 2016 Olympic Games. On August 26, 2011 it was confirmed that Doha would bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.[28] Doha however failed to become a Candidate City for the 2020 Games.[29] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
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In November 2009, Doha hosted the The Oryx Cup World Championship. This is a hydroplane boat race in the H1 Unlimited season. The race took place in Doha Bay on the Persian Gulf. The H1 Unlimited and the Qatar Marine Sports Federation (QMSF) agreed to have the final race of the 2009 H1 Unlimited unlimited hydroplane season in Doha. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
Ten of the fastest racing boats in the world traveled to Doha November 2009 for the inaugural Oryx Cup event—the H1 Unlimited World Championship—as a result of an Agreement in Principle reached January 9 between the ABRA and the QMSF. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
In December 2010, Qatar won the rights to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and bring the event to the region for the first time. As a result of Qatar's harsh summers and the small population of the country, the bid contained several unique elements which were unprecedented in World Cup history. The winning bid proposed that all stadiums constructed to host the World Cup would be built as air conditioned indoor venues, HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard
in order to ensure that the event could be held in summer.
Education City is an initiative of Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development. Located on the outskirts of Doha, the capital of Qatar, Education City covers 14 square kilometers and houses educational facilities from school age to research level and branch campuses of some of the world's leading universities. SAMSUNG Q330-JS02 Laptop Keyboard
Education City aims to be the center of educational excellence in the region, instructing students in fields of critical importance to theGulf Cooperation Council region. It is also conceived of as a forum where universities share research and forge relationships with businesses and institutions in public and private sectors. Mozah bint Nasser Al Missned was a driving force behind the foundation and construction of Education City. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani (Arabic: الشيخ حمد بن خليفة آل ثاني, born 1 January 1952) has been the ruling Emirof the State of Qatar since 1995.[1][2] Sheikh Hamad was the appointed Heir Apparent of Qatar between 1977 and 1995 and at the same time Minister of Defense.[3] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
In the early 1980s he led the Supreme Planning Council, which sets the Qatar's basic economic and social policies. Starting in 1992, Hamad had a growing responsibility for the day-to-day running of the country,[4] including the development of Qatar's oil and natural gas resources. On 27 June 1995, after deposing his father in a palace coup, Sheikh Hamad became Emir of Qatar and was crowned on 20 June 2000.[4] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
The Emir is famous for helping to establish the first Arab international news network, Al Jazeera, when he provided a loan of QAR 500 million ($137 million) to sustain Al Jazeera through its first five years. In late 2012 and early 2013 the Emir was accused of providing financial and material support to terrorist organizations such as Hamas,[5] HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard
Ansar Dine,[6] and the Al-Nusra Front.[7]
In the early 1980s, Hamad led the Supreme Planning Council, which sets the Qatar's basic economic and social policies. Starting in 1992, Hamad's father handed over responsibility for the day-to-day running of the country,[4] Lenovo 3000 C200 Laptop Keyboard
including the development of Qatar's oil and natural gas resources. With the support of his family, Sheikh Hamad took control of the country in 1995 while his father was on vacation abroad.[4] While his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani was in Geneva, Switzerland, Hamad bin Khalifa deposed him in a bloodless 1995 coup d'état.[8] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Hamad bin Khalifa engaged an American law firm to freeze his father's bank accounts abroad, thereby defeating a possible countercoup.[4]Thereafter, his father lived in exile in France and Abu Dhabi[8] until he returned to Qatar in 2004. DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
The Emir is considered to be progressive among leaders of Muslim countries.[citation needed] In a break with the traditional role, his second wife Sheikha Mozah bint Nasser Al Missned has been a visible advocate for education and children's causes.[4] SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard
A sportsman[9] and an accomplished diver, Hamad has played an active role in promoting and developing athletics in Qatar. His activism has enhanced the country's involvement and performance in a number of international competitions, including: HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard
winning an Olympic medal in track and field; hosting a wide variety of international sporting events such as the 15th Asian Games, GCC, Asian and World Youth soccer championships; and initiating theQatar Open Tennis Championship which has grown to become one of two premier tennis competitions in the Middle East. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
Under his rule the Qatari government helped to fund the Al Jazeera news network, funding it by an emiri decree.[10] In an analysis of Al Jazeera, Hugh Miles claimed that diplomats from other countries know that the Emir is the real power behind Al Jazeera but he also quotes a network spokesman denying 'countless times' this accusation, HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard
adding that many independent news sources also have subsidies from their respective governments without this implying editorial dabbling and explaining that trying to coerce the kind of journalists Al Jazeera has would be like trying to 'herd cats'.[11] Sheik Hamad is a distant cousin of the network chairman, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Hamad bin Thamer Al Thani, who was previously Minister of Information in the Emir Al-Thani government. Following the initial US$137 million grant from Emir Al-Thani, Al Jazeera had aimed to become self-sufficient through advertising by 2001, but when this failed to occur, the Emir agreed to several consecutive loans[11] on a year-by-year basis (US$30 million in 2004,[12]according to Arnaud de Borchgrave). TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
"[13][14] The Washington Postreported in 2005 that Sheik Hamad was under pressure to privatize the network.[15]
The emir made a $100 million donation for the relief of New Orleans following the 2005 Hurricane Katrina.[16] SONY KFRMBA152A laptop keyboard
In 2012, the emir proposed deploying Arab troops to reduce killings in the Syrian civil war.[17]
He has provided two military bases for foreign troops, Al Udeid Air Base and Camp As Sayliyah.
Despite the prevalence of anti-Israel sentiment within the Arab world, he had previously maintained friendly relations with Israel.[8] HP Pavilion dv6-2150es laptop keyboard
He met Foreign Minister of Israel Tzipi Livni (25 September 2007) in New York. This marked the first real attempt by any leader in the Persian Gulf to pursue dialogue with Israel.[18][19]However, Qatar severed diplomatic ties with Israel in 2009 in response to Israel's actions during the Gaza War.[20] The emir has also expressed his objection toIsraeli settlement policy, especially the Judaization of Jerusalem.[21] Packard Bell Easynote TM81 laptop keyboard
Media sources claimed that Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani made a bid for Manchester United on 11 February 2011. Qatari Holdings offered £1.65 billion toMalcolm Glazer, the current American owner of the club.[35] This follows a series of endeavors by the Emir and other Qataris into the World Football community, SONY VAIO VGN-N17G laptop keyboard
following Qatar's successful bid for the 2022 World Cup, and the Qatar Foundation's recent £125m shirt deal with FC Barcelona. In mid-June 2011, rumours resurfaced that Qatari Holdings were preparing a £2 Billion takeover bid and that the funding, that the club had been using for transfers since the start of June, HP G72-150EF laptop keyboard
was actually supplied by the Qataris and not the Glazer Family.[36] In 2012 it was rumoured that Sheik Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani was in bid for Rangers F.C..[37] On 30 March 2012 sheik Al Thani offered to buy KF Tirana, although the details aren't published yet.[38] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalizeinternational trade. The organization officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948.[5] HP Pavilion dv6-2020sa laptop keyboard
The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8832 laptop keyboard
which are signed by representatives of member governments[6]:fol.9–10 and ratified by their parliaments.[7] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994). HP G61-110SA laptop keyboard
The organization is attempting to complete negotiations on the Doha Development Round, which was launched in 2001 with an explicit focus on addressing the needs of developing countries. As of June 2012, the future of the Doha Round remains uncertain: the work programme lists 21 subjects in which the original deadline of 1 January 2005 was missed, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
and the round is still incomplete.[8] The conflict between free trade on industrial goods and services but retention of protectionism on farm subsidies to domestic agricultural sector(requested by developed countries) and the substantiation of the international liberalization of fair tradeon agricultural products (requested by developing countries) remain the major obstacles. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard
These points of contention have hindered any progress to launch new WTO negotiations beyond the Doha Development Round. As a result of this impasse, there has been an increasing number of bilateral free trade agreements signed.[9] As of July 2012, there are various negotiation groups in the WTO system for the current agricultural trade negotiation which is in the condition of stalemate.[10] SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M laptop keyboard
WTO's current Director-General is Pascal Lamy, who leads a staff of over 600 people in Geneva, Switzerland.
The WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international economic cooperation – notably the Bretton Woods institutionsknown as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. SONY VAIO VGN NR480E laptop keyboard
A comparable international institution for trade, named theInternational Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, HP G72-150EF Laptop Keyboard
and commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the U.S. and a few other signatories and never went into effect.[12][13][14]
In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GATT would over the years "transform itself" into a de factointernational organization.[15] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT. The first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
and in others broke entirely new ground. Because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called "codes". Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two.[16] SONY VAIO VGN-NW50JB laptop keyboard
Well before GATT's 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizingworld economy.[20][21] In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), HP Pavilion dv6-2190us laptop keyboard
the eighth GATT round – known as the Uruguay Round – was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay.[20]
It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; DELL Latitude D510 laptop keyboard
all the original GATT articles were up for review.[21] The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing the WTO regime was signed 15 April 1994, during the ministerial meeting at Marrakesh, Morocco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.[22] SONY VAIO VGN-FS195VP laptop keyboard
The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).[20] GATT 1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The agreements fall into a structure with six main parts: SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
The highest decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements. Theinaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in 1996. Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard
Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the "Singapore issues". The second ministerial conference was held in Geneva in Switzerland. The third conference in Seattle, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Washington ended in failure, with massive demonstrations and police and National Guard crowd control efforts drawing worldwide attention. The fourth ministerial conference was held in Doha in the Persian Gulf nation of Qatar. The Doha Development Roundwas launched at the conference. The conference also approved the joining of China, which became the 143rd member to join. The fifth ministerial conference was held in Cancún, SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
Mexico, aiming at forging agreement on the Doha round. An alliance of 22 southern states, the G20 developing nations (led by India, China,[25]Brazil, ASEAN led by the Philippines), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called "Singapore issues" and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The talks broke down without progress. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ72B laptop keyboard
The sixth WTO ministerial conference was held in Hong Kong from 13–18 December 2005. It was considered vital if the four-year-old Doha Development Round negotiations were to move forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. In this meeting, countries agreed to phase out all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and terminate any cotton export subsidies by the end of 2006. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Further concessions to developing countries included an agreement to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the Least Developed Countries, following the Everything but Arms initiative of the European Union — but with up to 3% of tariff lines exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation to be completed by the end of 2010. Packard Bell Easynote TM98 laptop keyboard
The WTO General Council, on 26 May 2009, agreed to hold a seventh WTO ministerial conference session in Geneva from 30 November-3 December 2009. A statement by chairman Amb. Mario Matusacknowledged that the prime purpose was to remedy a breach of protocol requiring two-yearly "regular" meetings, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4112 laptop keyboard
which had lapsed with the Doha Round failure in 2005, and that the "scaled-down" meeting would not be a negotiating session, but "emphasis will be on transparency and open discussion rather than on small group processes and informal negotiating structures". The general theme for discussion was "The WTO, the Multilateral Trading System and the Current Global Economic Environment"[26] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. This was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world's poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.[27] The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.[28] SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard
The negotiations have been highly contentious. Disagreements still continue over several key areas including agriculture subsidies, which emerged as critical in July 2006.[29] According to a European Union statement, "The 2008 Ministerial meeting broke down over a disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a 'special safeguard measure' IBM Thinkpad Z60m laptop keyboard
to protect farmers from surges in imports."[30] The position of the European Commission is that "The successful conclusion of the Doha negotiations would confirm the central role of multilateral liberalisation and rule-making. It would confirm the WTO as a powerful shield against protectionist backsliding."[28] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
An impasse remains and As of June 2012, agreement has not been reached, despite intense negotiations at several ministerial conferences and at other sessions.
Additionally, it is the WTO's duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.[33][35] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.[36] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
The WTO is also a center of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.[37] Finally, the WTO cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank.[34] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard
The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and current trade regime.[54] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last more if the country is less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest was that of Russia, which, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, was approved for membership in December 2011 and became a WTO member on 22 August 2012.[55] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
The second longest was that of Vanuatu, whose Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was established on 11 July 1995. After a final meeting of the Working Party in October 2001, Vanuatu requested more time to consider its accession terms. In 2008, it indicated its interest to resume and conclude its WTO accession. The Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was reconvened informally on 4 April 2011 to discuss Vanuatu's future WTO membership. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard
The re-convened Working Party completed its mandate on 2 May 2011. The General Council formally approved the Accession Package of Vanuatu on 26 October 2011. On 24 August 2012, the WTO welcomed Vanuatu as its 157th member.[56] An offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested parties.[57] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.[58]The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members.[57] GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard
After all necessary background information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.[54] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally.[58] ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard
When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-be's commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
The WTO has 159 members and 25 observer governments.[60] In addition to states, the European Union is a member. WTO members do not have to be full sovereign nation-members. Instead, they must be a customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. HP Mini 110-1033cl Laptop Keyboard
Thus Hong Kong has been a member since 1995 (as "Hong Kong, China" since 1997) predating the People's Republic of China, which joined in 2001 after 15 years of negotiations. The Republic of China (Taiwan) acceded to the WTO in 2002 as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu,Kinmen and Matsu" (Chinese Taipei) despite its disputed status.[61] The WTO Secretariat omits the official titles (such as Counselor, ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard
First Secretary, Second Secretary and Third Secretary) of the members of Chinese Taipei's Permanent Mission to the WTO, except for the titles of the Permanent Representative and the Deputy Permanent Representative.[62] DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard
Iran is the biggest economy outside the WTO.[63] With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. A number of international intergovernmental organizations have also been granted observer status to WTO bodies.[64] FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 Laptop Keyboard
14 states and two territories so far have no official interaction with the WTO.
The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession.[65] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows. Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domestic support, market access and export subsidies. The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading system to service sector, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
in the same way as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided such a system for merchandise trade. The agreement entered into force in January 1995. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rightssets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures—also known as the SPS Agreement—was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of GATT, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members'ASUS A3H laptop keyboard
policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases). The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, ACER Aspire 5738PZG laptop keyboard
and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994. The object ensures that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade".[66] The Agreement on Customs Valuation, formally known as the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of GATT, prescribes methods of customs valuation that Members are to follow. Chiefly, it adopts the "transaction value" approach. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Baghdad, Berlin, Constantinople, Ancient Cusco, London, Athens, Madrid, Moscow, Ancient Rome, Beijing, Stockholm, Tokyo, andVienna. FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 laptop keyboard
The capital city naturally attracts politically motivated people and those whose skills are needed for efficient administration of national or imperial governments, such as lawyers, political scientists, bankers, journalists, and public policy makers. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e.g. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Constantinople (more than one religion), Rome (the Roman Catholic Church), Jerusalem (Judaism), Ancient Baghdad, London (the Anglican Church), Moscow (theRussian Orthodox Church), Belgrade (the Serbian Orthodox Church), Paris, and Peking. ACER PK13ZLH0100 laptop keyboard
A capital city that is also the prime economic, cultural, or intellectual centre of a nation or an empire is sometimes referred to as a primate city. Examples are Athens, Belgrade, Bratislava, Brussels, Bucharest, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Copenhagen, Dublin, Istanbul, Lima, Lisbon, London, Madrid, Manila,Montevideo, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
Mexico City, Nairobi, Paris, Prague, Riga, Rome, Santiago, Seoul, Skopje, Sofia, Stockholm, Tirana, Tokyo, Vienna, Vilnius, and Warsaw.
The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal. Traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e.g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its capital city, as occurred at Babylon and Cahokia. HP Pavilion dv5-1132la Laptop Keyboard
Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such: for example Bern, Edinburgh,Lisbon, London, Melbourne, Paris, and Wellington. They are recognised as capitals as a matter of convention, and because all or almost all the country's central political institutions, such as government departments, supreme court, legislature, embassies, etc., are located in or near them. HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Laptop Keyboard
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Counties in England, Wales and Scotland have historic county towns, which are often not the largest settlement within the county and often are no longer administrative centres, as many historical counties are now only ceremonial, and administrative boundaries are different.
In Canada, there is a federal capital, Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard
and the ten provinces and three territories all have capital cities. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil(including the famous cities of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, capitals of their respective states), and Australia all have capital cities. For example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, South Australia; Brisbane, Queensland; Hobart, COMPAQ Presario CQ60-201EP Laptop Keyboard
Tasmania; Melbourne, Victoria; Perth, Western Australia; and Sydney, New South Wales. In Australia, the term "capital cities" is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra andDarwin, the capital of the Northern Territory. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
In the Federal Republic of Germany, each of its constituent states (or Länder - plural of Land) has its own capital city, such as Dresden, Wiesbaden, Mainz,Düsseldorf, Stuttgart, and Munich. Likewise, each of the republics of the Russian Federation has its own capital city. ASUS X53K Laptop Keyboard
The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the "Gulf War", despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict, when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed back. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
The Persian Gulf has many good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization, and in particular, oil and petroleum spills during wars in the region. HP G61-452EE Laptop Keyboard
Historically and internationally[2][3][4] known as the Persian Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf by most Arab states,[5] although neither of the latter two terms are recognized internationally. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.[6] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
This inland sea of some 251,000 km2 (96,912 sq mi) is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz; and its western end is marked by the major river delta of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphratesand the Tigris. Its length is 989 kilometres, with Iran covering most of the northern coast and Saudi Arabia most of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf is about 56 kilometres wide at its narrowest, DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are overall very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres and an average depth of 50 metres.
Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from the north): Iran, Oman (exclave of Musandam), United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar on apeninsula off the Saudi coast, Bahrain on an island, Kuwait and Iraq in the northwest. Various small islands lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states of the region. HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard
Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization refers to the gulf as the "Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf)", and defines its southern limit as "The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman". This limit is defined as "A line joining Ràs Limah (25°57'N) on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh (25°48'N) on the coast of Iran (Persia)".[6] Compaq Presario CQ57-229wm laptop keyboard
The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of crude oil, and related industries dominate the region. Safaniya Oil Field, the world's largest offshore oilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquified natural gas (LNG) and petrochemical industry. Compaq Presario CQ42 laptop keyboard
In 2002, the Persian Gulf nations of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, produced about 25% of the world's oil, held nearly two-thirds of the world's crude oil reserves, and about 35% of the world natural gas reserves.[7][8] HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard
The oil-rich countries (excluding Iraq) that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the Persian Gulf States. Iraq's egress to the gulf is narrow and easily blockaded consisting of the marshy river delta of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers, where the east bank is held by Iran. HP Mini 110-3110sp laptop keyboard
No written record has remained from the era before the Persian Empire, but in the oral history and culture, the Iranians have called the southern waters: "Jam Sea", "Iran Sea", and "Pars Sea".
During the years 550 to 330 BC, coinciding with the sovereignty of the first Persian Empire over the Middle East area, especially the whole part of the Persian Gulf and some parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the name of "Pars Sea" is widely found in the compiled written texts.[1] HP AEAX8U00010 laptop keyboard
In the travel account of Pythagoras, several chapters are related to description of his travels accompanied byDarius the Great, to Susa and Persepolis, and the area is described. From among the writings of others in the same period, there is the inscription and engraving of Darius the great, installed at junction of waters of Red Sea (also called "Arabian Gulf" or "Ahmar Sea") and the Nile river and the Rome river (current Mediterranean) which belongs to the 5th century BC where, Darius the Great, the king of the Achaemenid Empire has named the Persian Gulf Water Channel: Pars Sea (Persian Sea).[1] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
The shallow basin that now underlies the Gulf was an extensive region of river valley and wetlands during the transition between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the start of the Holocene, which, according to University of Birmingham archaeologist Jeffrey Rose, served as an environmental refuge for early humans during periodic hyperarid climate oscillations, laying the foundations for the legend of Dilmun[15] SONY VAIO VGN-N11M laptop keyboard
For most of the early history of the settlements in the Persian Gulf, the southern shores were ruled by a series of nomadic tribes. During the end of the fourth millennium BC, the southern part of the Persian Gulf was dominated by the Dilmun civilization. For a long time the most important settlement on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf was Gerrha. HP Pavilion ze5623 laptop keyboard
In the 2nd century the Lakhum tribe, who lived in what is now Yemen, migrated north and founded the Lakhmid Kingdom along the southern coast. Occasional ancient battles took place along the Persian Gulf coastlines, between the Sassanid Persian empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom, the most prominent of which was the invasion led by Shapur II against the Lakhmids, leading to Lakhmids' defeat, and advancement into Arabia, along the southern shore lines.[16] During the 7th century the Sassanid Persian empire conquered the whole of the Persian Gulf, including southern and northern shores. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Between 625 BC and 226 AD, the northern side was dominated by a succession of Persian empires including the Median,Achaemenid, Seleucid and Parthian empires. Under the leadership of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great (Darius I), Persian ships found their way to the Persian Gulf.[17] SONY VAIO PCG-FRV37 laptop keyboard
Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence in Persian Gulf, that started with Darius I and existed until the arrival of the British East India Company, and theRoyal Navy by mid-19th century AD. Persians were not only stationed on islands of the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling empire's various rivers including Shatt-al-Arab, Tigris, and the Nile in the west, as well as Sind waterway, in India.[17] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
The Achaemenid high naval command had established major naval bases located along Shatt al-Arab river, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet would soon not only be used for peacekeeping purposes along the Shatt al-Arab but would also open the door to trade with India via Persian Gulf.[17][18] IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard
Following the fall of Achaemenid Empire, and after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Sassanid empire ruled the northern half and at times the southern half of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with the Silk Road, were important trade routes in the Sassanid empire. Many of the trading ports of the Persian empires were located in or around Persian Gulf.Siraf, an ancient Sassanid port that was located on the northern shore of the gulf, HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr laptop keyboard
located in what is now the Iranian province of Bushehr, is an example of such commercial port. Siraf, was also significant in that it had a flourishing commercial trade with China by the 4th century, having first established connection with the far east in 185 AD.[19] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
Colonial era
See also: British Residency of the Persian Gulf
Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following Vasco da Gama's voyages of exploration saw them battle the Ottomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commander Antonio Correiainvaded Bahrain to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
On April 29, 1602, Shāh Abbās, the Persianemperor of the Safavid Persian Empire expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain,[20] and that date is commemorated as National Persian Gulf day in Iran.[21] With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island of Hormuz from the Portuguese; TOSHIBA Satellite L300-14G laptop keyboard
much of the trade was diverted to the town of Bandar 'Abbās, which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened by Persians to a flourishing commerce with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and the British merchants, who were granted particular privileges. ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard
In World War II, the Western Allies used Iran as a conduit to transport military and industrial supply to Russia (USSR), through a pathway known historically as the "Persian Corridor". This path would utilize the Trans-Iranian Railway, but in order for the supply to be transported to Iran, Britain utitlized the Persian Gulf as the entry point for the supply chain.[22] Persian Gulf therefore became a critical maritime path through which the Allies transported equipment, to Russia against the Nazi invasion.[23] HP G72-a10SV Laptop Keyboard
From 1763 until 1971, the British Empire maintained varying degrees of political control over some of the Persian Gulf states, including the United Arab Emirates (originally called the "Trucial Coast States")[24][25] and at various times Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar through the British Residency of the Persian Gulf. United Kingdom maintains a high profile in the region to date; in 2006 alone, over 1 million British nationals visited Dubai.[26] HP G42-477TU Laptop Keyboard
The wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique due to the gulf's geographic distribution and its isolation from the international waters only breached by the narrow Strait of Hormuz. The Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of which are near extinction or at serious environmental risk. From corals, to dugongs, Persian Gulf is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
A great example of this symbiosis are the mangroves in the gulf, which require tidal flow and a combination of fresh and salt water for growth, and act as nurseries for many crabs, small fish, and insects; these fish and insects are the source of food for many of the marine birds that feed on them.[28] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Mangroves are a diverse group of shrubs and trees belonging to the genus Avicennia or Rhizophora that flourish in the salt water shallows of the gulf, and are the most important habitats for small crustaceans that dwell in them. They are as crucial an indicator of biological health on the surface of the water, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
as the corals are to biological health of the gulf in deeper waters. Mangroves' ability to survive the salt water through intricate molecular mechanisms, their unique reproductive cycle, and their ability to grow in the most oxygen-deprived waters have allowed them extensive growth in hostile areas of the gulf.[29][30]Unfortunately, however, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-14N Laptop Keyboard
with the advent of artificial island development, most of their habitat is destroyed, or occupied by man-made structures. This has had a negative impact on the crustaceans that rely on the mangrove, and in turn on the species that feed on them. HP 502958-001 Laptop Keyboard
One of the most unique marine mammals living in the Persian Gulf is Dugong dugon, commonly referred to as the dugong, or the "sea cow". Called "sea cows" for their grazing habits, their mild manner and resemblance to the livestock, dugongs have a life expectancy similar to that of humans and can reach lengths of up to 3 meters. These gentle mammals feed on the sea grass and genetically resemble the land mammals more than the dolphins and the whales.[31] Despite the simplicity of their grass diet, TOSHIBA Satellite 1870 Laptop Keyboard
new developments along the Persian Gulf coastline, particularly artificial island development in Arab states, pollution particularly by oil spills caused during the "Persian Gulf war" and also due to occasional oil spills, and uncontrolled hunting has had a negative impact on the survival of the dugongs.[31] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
After Australian waters with some 80,000 dugong inhabitants, the waters off Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Saudi Arabia have some 7,500 dugongs remaining, making the Persian Gulf the second most important habitat for the species. HP 488590-001 Laptop Keyboard
Dugong's current number is dwindling and it is not clear how many are currently alive or what their reproductive trend is.[31][32] Unfortunately, ambitious and uncalculated construction schemes, political unrest and an ever present international conflict, and presence of the most lucrative world supply of oil, along with lack of cooperation between Arab states and Iran, has had a negative impact on the survival of many marine species, including dugongs. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
Coral is another important inhabitant of the Persian Gulf waters. Corals are vital ecosystems that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the gulf. Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the gulf, partially owing to global warming but majorly due to irresponsible dumping by Arab states like UAE and Bahrain.[33] Construction garbage such as tires, HP Mini 110-1125NR Laptop Keyboard
cement, and chemical by products have found their way to the Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, the construction waste creates "traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die.[33] The end result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number of species that rely on the corals for their survival. TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5165RM Laptop Keyboard
The Persian Gulf is also home to many migratory and local birds. There is great variation in color, size, and type of the bird species that call the gulf home. One bird in particular, the kalbaensis, a sub-species of the kingfishers is at the brink of extinction due to real state development by cities such as Dubai and countries such as Oman.[28] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Estimates from 2006 showed that only three viable nesting sites were available for this ancient bird, one located 80 miles from Dubai, and two smaller sites in Oman, all of which are in the process of becoming real estate developments.[28] Such expansion would prove devastating and could cause this species to become extinct. ACER TravelMate 3212WXMi Laptop Keyboard
Unfortunately for the kingfisher, a U.N. plan to protect the mangroves as a biological reserve was blatantly ignored by the emirate of Sharjah, which allowed the dredging of a channel that bisects the wetland and construction of an adjacent concrete walkway.[28] SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard
Environmental watchdogs in Arabia are few, and those that do advocate the wildlife are often silenced or ignored by developers of real estate, most of whom have royal family connections and huge energy profits to invest.[28] The end result has been sacrifice of a beautiful yet delicate ecology that has been in harmony for hundreds of years, for structures that are erected only a few years, yet will have a lasting detrimental effect. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Almost no species in the Persian Gulf is spared from the real estate development of UAE and Oman, including the hawksbill turtle, the flamingo, and the bootedwarblers, mainly due to destruction of the mangrove habitats to make way for towers, hotels, and luxury resorts.[28][34] Even dolphins that frequent the gulf in northern waters, HP 646568-001 Laptop Keyboard
around Iran are at serious risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse seine fishing nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps the most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran's Hormozgan province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs.[35][36] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Laptop Keyboard
The Persian Gulf is also home to over 700 species of fish, most of which are native to the gulf.[37] Of these 700 species, more than 80% are coral reef associated, and directly or indirectly depend on the coral reef for their survival. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
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Most pollution is from ships; land generated pollution counts as the second most common source of pollution,[38] ranging from mercury, to acidic or basic toxins. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
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Doha is the capital city of the state of Qatar. Located on the coast of the Persian Gulf, it had a population of 998,651 in 2008,[1] and is also one of themunicipalities of Qatar. Doha is Qatar's largest city, with over 60% of the nation's population residing in Doha or its surrounding suburbs, and is also the economic centre of the country. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard
Doha also serves as the seat of government of Qatar, which is ruled by Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani. Doha is home to the Education City, an area devoted to research and education. Doha was the site of the first ministerial-level meeting of the Doha Development Round of World Trade Organization negotiations. DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard
The city of Doha held the 2006 Asian Games, which was the largest Asian Games ever held. Doha also hosted the 2011 Pan Arab Games and most of the games at the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. Doha hosted the UNFCCC Climate Negotiations (COP 18)December 2012 and will host a large number of the venues for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The World Petroleum Councilheld the 20th World Petroleum Conference in Doha in December 2011.[2] HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard
In 1825, the city of Doha was founded under the name Al-Bidda. The name "Doha" came from the Arabic ad-dawḥa, "the big tree." The reference might be to a prominent tree that stood at the site where the original fishing village arose, on the eastern coast of the Qatar peninsula. Or it might have been derived from "dohat" --ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard
Arabic for bay or gulf — referring to the Doha Bay area surrounding Corniche. In 1825, during the war between Qatar andBahrain, Doha had been severely damaged and Abu Dhabi was helping Bahrain.[3] In 1882, Al Rayyan built the Al Wajbah fortress, in southwestern Doha. The following year, Sheikh Qassim bin Mohammed Al Thani led a Qatari army to victory against the Ottomans.
The city was made capital of the British protectorate of Qatar in 1916, and became the nation's capital following the independence of Qatar in 1971. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
In 1917, the Al Koot Fort fortress, which is located in the center of the city, was built by Sheikh Abdulla Bin Qassim Al-Thani. Still, during the early 20th century, much of Qatar's economy depended on fishing and pearling, and Doha had about 350 pearling boats. However, after the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearls in the 1930s, IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R50E Laptop Keyboard
the whole region, including the town of Doha, suffered a major depression and Qatar was plunged into poverty. This lasted until in the late 1930s, when oilwas discovered. However, the exploration and exportation was halted due to the second world war. Today the nation as a whole produces over 800,000 barrels of oil daily. In 1969, the Government House opened. Today it is considered to be Qatar's most prominent landmark. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard
The first mention of Al Bidda in English sources appeared in 1765, on a rather inaccurate map by Carsten Niebhur, in which Al Bidda is referred to as Guttur. Carsten had not visited Qatar personally, and had relied on the knowledge of local Arabs and English sea captains to fill in this section of his map. In the nineteenth century, Doha was little more than a small village which was known as Al Bidda. In 1820, Major Colebrook described it thus: Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
However, the small size of the place didn't stop it from being bombarded by the British vessel Vestal in 1821, after the city had been deemed to have broken a general treaty of peace. They were bombed again in 1841 after Al-Suwaidi, the Sudanese chief who then ruled Al Bidda, ACER TravelMate 4230 Series Laptop Keyboard
was accused of habouring an outlaw, and the village was destroyed in 1847 after its leader – Bin Tarif Bin Salamah – had been killed in battle against the Al Khalifas of Bahrain near Fuweirat. These major disturbances were probably also punctuated by the customary raids of the nomadic Bedouin; raids which would not stop for another hundred years. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard
At some point after this destruction, the Al Thani family moved from Fuwairet to Al Bidda, for when the British Resident visited the village he found that Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani was now chief of Doha. Doha was now a separate village close to Al Bidda, and in between Al Bidda and Doha lay little Doha, only four hundred yards form Al Bidda. Paradoxically, the roots of its future as the capital of Qatar lay when Doha, along with Al Wakrah, SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard
were attacked again – by Bahrain in 1867, aided by Abu Dhabi. Doha and Al Wakra attempted to retaliate in a very bloody sea battle.
The British, who wished to avoid disruption to trade and were angry that the Al Khalifas of Bahrain had broken a treaty forbidding maritime warfare in the area, came to Qatar and were met by the headman of Al Bidda, Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani, on behalf of "all the Sheikhs and tribes" in the peninsula. This meeting was, eventually, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard
to lead to Qatar becoming a nation state under the Al Thanis. For a time Ottomans took up a rather nominal control of the country, with a base in Doha, with the acquiescence of Qassim Al Thani, who wished to consolidate his control of the area. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard
However, disagreement over tribute and interference in internal affairs arose which eventually led to battle in 1893. The Ottomans were defeated and retreated to their small fort in the centre of Doha, where they remained until they finally left during the first world war. Partly as a result of the departure of the Ottomans, Qatar was made a formal British protectorate in 1916, with Doha as its capital. TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard
At about 1900 Doha had a population of around 12,000 and around 350 pearling boats. However, the growth of trade in cultured pearls from Japan began to impact upon the region, and this was exacerbated by the depression of the 1930s. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X301 2779 Laptop Keyboard
The exploitation of Qatar's oil reserves after the end of the second world war was to save the city, although it was to be some time before the source of their current and future wealth – natural gas – was exploited. ACER Aspire 5745 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan
Buildings at the time were simple dwellings of one or two rooms, built from mud, stone and coral. However, the Amirs of Qatar were not long in exploiting the new-found wealth, and slum areas were quickly razed to be replaced by more modern buildings. As with other countries in the region, in this rush to modernize much of the country’s heritage was lost, and in Doha now there is only a single remaining wind tower. SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M Laptop Keyboard
The Qatar Museums Authority now works to preserve the remaining heritage. The astonishing development of Doha, and the changing shape of the bay, can be seen to this day in Qatar’s National Museum. Doha was a port of some local significance. However, the shallow water of the bay prevented bigger ships from entering the port until the 1970s, when its deep-water port was completed. Further changes followed with extensive land reclamation, which led to the crescent-shaped bay that we can see today. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-15C Laptop Keyboard
In 1973, the University of Qatar opened, and in 1975 the Qatar National Museum opened in what was originally the ruler's palace in 1912. The Al Jazeera Arabicsatellite television news channel began broadcasting from Doha in 1996. Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani currently rules in what some consider to be Qatar's most beautiful city. SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z Laptop Keyboard
Doha has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Temperatures average over 38 °C (100 °F) from May to September, and humidity is variable. Dewpoints can surpass 25 °C (77 °F) in the summer. During the summer months, the city averages almost no precipitation, and less than 20 mm (0.79 in) during other months.[5] Rainfall is scarce, at an average of 75 mm (2.95 in) per annum, falling on isolated days mostly between October to March. Winters are warm, and the temperature rarely drops below 7 °C (45 °F). HP Pavilion dv3-2304tx laptop keyboard
The demography of Doha is unusual in that the majority of residents are expatriates, with Qatari nationals forming a minority. The largest portion of expatriates in Qatar are from South-East and South Asian countries, mainly Pakistan, India, TOSHIBA Satellite L500-ST2522 laptop keyboard
Sri Lanka, Nepal, Philippines, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, with large numbers of expatriates also coming from the Levant Arab countries, North Africa, and East Asia. Doha is also home to expatriates from Germany, the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, France, South Africa, and Australia as well as many other countries from all over the world. ASUS K030662M2 laptop keyboard
In the past, expatriates in Qatar were not allowed to own land; however, now people who are not Qatari citizens can buy land in several areas of Doha, including the West Bay Lagoon, the Qatar Pearl and the new Lusail City. Ownership by foreigners in Qatar entitles them to a renewable residency permit, which allows them to live and work in Qatar. SONY VAIO VGN-CS220J/T laptop keyboard
Each month, thousands emigrate to Qatar, and as a result, Doha has witnessed explosive growth rates in population. Doha's population currently stands at around one million,[6] with the population of the city more than doubling in the past decade. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Due to the high influx of expatriates, the Qatari housing market saw a shortage of supply which led to a rise in prices and increased inflation. The gap in the housing market between supply and demand has narrowed, however, and property prices have fallen in some areas following a period which saw rents triple in some areas.[7] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
According to Qatar Chamber, expatriate workers have remitted $60bn between 2006 and 2012. 54 percent of the workers' remittances of $60bn were routed to Asian countries, followed by Arab nations that accounted for nearly half that volume (28 percent). India was the top destination of the remittances, followed by the Philippines, while the US, Egypt and the neighbouring UAE trailed.[8] COMPAQ Presario CQ45-206TU laptop keyboard
Several churches have recently been constructed in Doha, following decrees by the Emir for the allocation of land to churches. In March 2008, the first Catholic Church in Doha, Our Lady of the Rosary, was opened. The church structure is discreet and Christian symbols are not displayed on the outside of the building.[9]Today, several churches exist in Doha, including the Malankara Orthodox Church, Mar Thoma Church (affiliated with the Anglicans, but not part of the Communion), CSI Church, Syro-Malankara Church and the Pentecostal Church. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Much of Qatar's oil and natural gas wealth is visible in Doha, which is the economic centre of Qatar. Doha is home to the headquarters of the country's largest oil and gas companies, including Qatar Petroleum, Qatargas and RasGas. Doha's economy is built on the revenue the country has made from its oil and natural gas industries, and the Qatari government is rapidly trying to diversify the Qatari economy in order to move away from this dependence on oil. Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard
As a result, Doha is currently experiencing a very large boom, with the city developing very rapidly – this is mostly the result of Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa's modernization program.
Like the nearby city of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, Doha's economy is moving away from its dependency on the oil and natural gas industries, although unlike Dubai, Doha's main focus is not tourism. Doha is seeing huge amounts of growth, with the population of the city increasing by more than 30,000 between 2004 and 2006; SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard
this has caused a boom in the real estate sector, with real estate prices skyrocketing.[19] According to the BBC, as of late January 2007, Doha is now a more expensive city than Dubai in terms of real estate prices. This rate of growth has led to projects such as the Lusail City project, which is being constructed north of Doha and will eventually house 200,000 people. ACER TravelMate 4230 Series laptop keyboard
Construction is also booming in Doha, a result of increasing corporate and commercial activity there. This is most visible with the changing skyline of the city, as Doha has over 50 towers currently being constructed, the largest of which is theDubai Towers. At the same time, 39 new hotels are joining Qatar's booming tourism market, adding about 9,000 new rooms by 2009.
Qatar Airways is headquartered in the Qatar Airways Tower in Doha.[20] Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard
Education has been a major focus of the Qatari government in recent years. In addition to Qatar University, established in 1973, the government has solicited other universities to establish campuses in Doha, most notably at Education City. Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard
Education City is one of the main projects of the non-profit organization Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development. It has also launched the World Innovation Summit for Education (WISE), a global forum that brings together education stakeholders, opinion leaders and decision makers from all over the world to discuss educational issues. The first edition will be held in Doha, Qatar from November 16 to 18, 2009. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
A key player in the educational field in Qatar is the Supreme Council of Communication and Information Technology ictQATAR. Through its e-education program, ictQATAR is bringing together the power of education and ICT in Qatar.
Doha is also home to many international schools established for its expatriate communities, with dozens of different private schools currently operating in the city, such as SONY VAIO VGN-NW15L laptop keyboard
The Wall Stadium would become the world's largest underground stadium, dwarfing the Fjellhallen ice-hockey arena in Norway, and would be the main venue for the 2011 AFC Asian Cup.[25] The stadium is estimated to cost 20 million dollars. The stadium will have the latest technology and roads leading to the stadium will be easy. While the New Paralympic stadium south of the new City of Lusail will be the most advance Paralympic stadium. SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard
In 2001, Qatar also became the first country in the Middle East to hold a women's tennis tournament: Qatar holds both the Qatar Open for Women and the ladies ITF tournament. Since 2008 and at least for 3 years, the Sony Ericsson Championships (equivalent to the ATP's season-ending Championships) takes place in Doha, in the Khalifa International Tennis Complex, HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard
and features record prize money of $4.45 million (check of $1,485,000 for the winner, which represents the largest single guaranteed payout in women's tennis today[26]).
Doha submitted a bid for the 2016 Olympics.[27] On June 4, 2008, the city was eliminated from the shortlist for the 2016 Olympic Games. On August 26, 2011 it was confirmed that Doha would bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.[28] Doha however failed to become a Candidate City for the 2020 Games.[29] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard
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In November 2009, Doha hosted the The Oryx Cup World Championship. This is a hydroplane boat race in the H1 Unlimited season. The race took place in Doha Bay on the Persian Gulf. The H1 Unlimited and the Qatar Marine Sports Federation (QMSF) agreed to have the final race of the 2009 H1 Unlimited unlimited hydroplane season in Doha. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard
Ten of the fastest racing boats in the world traveled to Doha November 2009 for the inaugural Oryx Cup event—the H1 Unlimited World Championship—as a result of an Agreement in Principle reached January 9 between the ABRA and the QMSF. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
In December 2010, Qatar won the rights to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and bring the event to the region for the first time. As a result of Qatar's harsh summers and the small population of the country, the bid contained several unique elements which were unprecedented in World Cup history. The winning bid proposed that all stadiums constructed to host the World Cup would be built as air conditioned indoor venues, HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard
in order to ensure that the event could be held in summer.
Education City is an initiative of Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development. Located on the outskirts of Doha, the capital of Qatar, Education City covers 14 square kilometers and houses educational facilities from school age to research level and branch campuses of some of the world's leading universities. SAMSUNG Q330-JS02 Laptop Keyboard
Education City aims to be the center of educational excellence in the region, instructing students in fields of critical importance to theGulf Cooperation Council region. It is also conceived of as a forum where universities share research and forge relationships with businesses and institutions in public and private sectors. Mozah bint Nasser Al Missned was a driving force behind the foundation and construction of Education City. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani (Arabic: الشيخ حمد بن خليفة آل ثاني, born 1 January 1952) has been the ruling Emirof the State of Qatar since 1995.[1][2] Sheikh Hamad was the appointed Heir Apparent of Qatar between 1977 and 1995 and at the same time Minister of Defense.[3] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard
In the early 1980s he led the Supreme Planning Council, which sets the Qatar's basic economic and social policies. Starting in 1992, Hamad had a growing responsibility for the day-to-day running of the country,[4] including the development of Qatar's oil and natural gas resources. On 27 June 1995, after deposing his father in a palace coup, Sheikh Hamad became Emir of Qatar and was crowned on 20 June 2000.[4] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard
The Emir is famous for helping to establish the first Arab international news network, Al Jazeera, when he provided a loan of QAR 500 million ($137 million) to sustain Al Jazeera through its first five years. In late 2012 and early 2013 the Emir was accused of providing financial and material support to terrorist organizations such as Hamas,[5] HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard
Ansar Dine,[6] and the Al-Nusra Front.[7]
In the early 1980s, Hamad led the Supreme Planning Council, which sets the Qatar's basic economic and social policies. Starting in 1992, Hamad's father handed over responsibility for the day-to-day running of the country,[4] Lenovo 3000 C200 Laptop Keyboard
including the development of Qatar's oil and natural gas resources. With the support of his family, Sheikh Hamad took control of the country in 1995 while his father was on vacation abroad.[4] While his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani was in Geneva, Switzerland, Hamad bin Khalifa deposed him in a bloodless 1995 coup d'état.[8] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
Hamad bin Khalifa engaged an American law firm to freeze his father's bank accounts abroad, thereby defeating a possible countercoup.[4]Thereafter, his father lived in exile in France and Abu Dhabi[8] until he returned to Qatar in 2004. DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard
The Emir is considered to be progressive among leaders of Muslim countries.[citation needed] In a break with the traditional role, his second wife Sheikha Mozah bint Nasser Al Missned has been a visible advocate for education and children's causes.[4] SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard
A sportsman[9] and an accomplished diver, Hamad has played an active role in promoting and developing athletics in Qatar. His activism has enhanced the country's involvement and performance in a number of international competitions, including: HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard
winning an Olympic medal in track and field; hosting a wide variety of international sporting events such as the 15th Asian Games, GCC, Asian and World Youth soccer championships; and initiating theQatar Open Tennis Championship which has grown to become one of two premier tennis competitions in the Middle East. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard
Under his rule the Qatari government helped to fund the Al Jazeera news network, funding it by an emiri decree.[10] In an analysis of Al Jazeera, Hugh Miles claimed that diplomats from other countries know that the Emir is the real power behind Al Jazeera but he also quotes a network spokesman denying 'countless times' this accusation, HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard
adding that many independent news sources also have subsidies from their respective governments without this implying editorial dabbling and explaining that trying to coerce the kind of journalists Al Jazeera has would be like trying to 'herd cats'.[11] Sheik Hamad is a distant cousin of the network chairman, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard
Hamad bin Thamer Al Thani, who was previously Minister of Information in the Emir Al-Thani government. Following the initial US$137 million grant from Emir Al-Thani, Al Jazeera had aimed to become self-sufficient through advertising by 2001, but when this failed to occur, the Emir agreed to several consecutive loans[11] on a year-by-year basis (US$30 million in 2004,[12]according to Arnaud de Borchgrave). TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
"[13][14] The Washington Postreported in 2005 that Sheik Hamad was under pressure to privatize the network.[15]
The emir made a $100 million donation for the relief of New Orleans following the 2005 Hurricane Katrina.[16] SONY KFRMBA152A laptop keyboard
In 2012, the emir proposed deploying Arab troops to reduce killings in the Syrian civil war.[17]
He has provided two military bases for foreign troops, Al Udeid Air Base and Camp As Sayliyah.
Despite the prevalence of anti-Israel sentiment within the Arab world, he had previously maintained friendly relations with Israel.[8] HP Pavilion dv6-2150es laptop keyboard
He met Foreign Minister of Israel Tzipi Livni (25 September 2007) in New York. This marked the first real attempt by any leader in the Persian Gulf to pursue dialogue with Israel.[18][19]However, Qatar severed diplomatic ties with Israel in 2009 in response to Israel's actions during the Gaza War.[20] The emir has also expressed his objection toIsraeli settlement policy, especially the Judaization of Jerusalem.[21] Packard Bell Easynote TM81 laptop keyboard
Media sources claimed that Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani made a bid for Manchester United on 11 February 2011. Qatari Holdings offered £1.65 billion toMalcolm Glazer, the current American owner of the club.[35] This follows a series of endeavors by the Emir and other Qataris into the World Football community, SONY VAIO VGN-N17G laptop keyboard
following Qatar's successful bid for the 2022 World Cup, and the Qatar Foundation's recent £125m shirt deal with FC Barcelona. In mid-June 2011, rumours resurfaced that Qatari Holdings were preparing a £2 Billion takeover bid and that the funding, that the club had been using for transfers since the start of June, HP G72-150EF laptop keyboard
was actually supplied by the Qataris and not the Glazer Family.[36] In 2012 it was rumoured that Sheik Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani was in bid for Rangers F.C..[37] On 30 March 2012 sheik Al Thani offered to buy KF Tirana, although the details aren't published yet.[38] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalizeinternational trade. The organization officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948.[5] HP Pavilion dv6-2020sa laptop keyboard
The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8832 laptop keyboard
which are signed by representatives of member governments[6]:fol.9–10 and ratified by their parliaments.[7] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994). HP G61-110SA laptop keyboard
The organization is attempting to complete negotiations on the Doha Development Round, which was launched in 2001 with an explicit focus on addressing the needs of developing countries. As of June 2012, the future of the Doha Round remains uncertain: the work programme lists 21 subjects in which the original deadline of 1 January 2005 was missed, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
and the round is still incomplete.[8] The conflict between free trade on industrial goods and services but retention of protectionism on farm subsidies to domestic agricultural sector(requested by developed countries) and the substantiation of the international liberalization of fair tradeon agricultural products (requested by developing countries) remain the major obstacles. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard
These points of contention have hindered any progress to launch new WTO negotiations beyond the Doha Development Round. As a result of this impasse, there has been an increasing number of bilateral free trade agreements signed.[9] As of July 2012, there are various negotiation groups in the WTO system for the current agricultural trade negotiation which is in the condition of stalemate.[10] SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M laptop keyboard
WTO's current Director-General is Pascal Lamy, who leads a staff of over 600 people in Geneva, Switzerland.
The WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international economic cooperation – notably the Bretton Woods institutionsknown as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. SONY VAIO VGN NR480E laptop keyboard
A comparable international institution for trade, named theInternational Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, HP G72-150EF Laptop Keyboard
and commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the U.S. and a few other signatories and never went into effect.[12][13][14]
In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GATT would over the years "transform itself" into a de factointernational organization.[15] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT. The first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
and in others broke entirely new ground. Because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called "codes". Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard
Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two.[16] SONY VAIO VGN-NW50JB laptop keyboard
Well before GATT's 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizingworld economy.[20][21] In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), HP Pavilion dv6-2190us laptop keyboard
the eighth GATT round – known as the Uruguay Round – was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay.[20]
It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; DELL Latitude D510 laptop keyboard
all the original GATT articles were up for review.[21] The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing the WTO regime was signed 15 April 1994, during the ministerial meeting at Marrakesh, Morocco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.[22] SONY VAIO VGN-FS195VP laptop keyboard
The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).[20] GATT 1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The agreements fall into a structure with six main parts: SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard
The highest decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements. Theinaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in 1996. Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard
Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the "Singapore issues". The second ministerial conference was held in Geneva in Switzerland. The third conference in Seattle, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Washington ended in failure, with massive demonstrations and police and National Guard crowd control efforts drawing worldwide attention. The fourth ministerial conference was held in Doha in the Persian Gulf nation of Qatar. The Doha Development Roundwas launched at the conference. The conference also approved the joining of China, which became the 143rd member to join. The fifth ministerial conference was held in Cancún, SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard
Mexico, aiming at forging agreement on the Doha round. An alliance of 22 southern states, the G20 developing nations (led by India, China,[25]Brazil, ASEAN led by the Philippines), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called "Singapore issues" and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The talks broke down without progress. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ72B laptop keyboard
The sixth WTO ministerial conference was held in Hong Kong from 13–18 December 2005. It was considered vital if the four-year-old Doha Development Round negotiations were to move forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. In this meeting, countries agreed to phase out all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and terminate any cotton export subsidies by the end of 2006. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard
Further concessions to developing countries included an agreement to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the Least Developed Countries, following the Everything but Arms initiative of the European Union — but with up to 3% of tariff lines exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation to be completed by the end of 2010. Packard Bell Easynote TM98 laptop keyboard
The WTO General Council, on 26 May 2009, agreed to hold a seventh WTO ministerial conference session in Geneva from 30 November-3 December 2009. A statement by chairman Amb. Mario Matusacknowledged that the prime purpose was to remedy a breach of protocol requiring two-yearly "regular" meetings, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4112 laptop keyboard
which had lapsed with the Doha Round failure in 2005, and that the "scaled-down" meeting would not be a negotiating session, but "emphasis will be on transparency and open discussion rather than on small group processes and informal negotiating structures". The general theme for discussion was "The WTO, the Multilateral Trading System and the Current Global Economic Environment"[26] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. This was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world's poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.[27] The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.[28] SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard
The negotiations have been highly contentious. Disagreements still continue over several key areas including agriculture subsidies, which emerged as critical in July 2006.[29] According to a European Union statement, "The 2008 Ministerial meeting broke down over a disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a 'special safeguard measure' IBM Thinkpad Z60m laptop keyboard
to protect farmers from surges in imports."[30] The position of the European Commission is that "The successful conclusion of the Doha negotiations would confirm the central role of multilateral liberalisation and rule-making. It would confirm the WTO as a powerful shield against protectionist backsliding."[28] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
An impasse remains and As of June 2012, agreement has not been reached, despite intense negotiations at several ministerial conferences and at other sessions.
Additionally, it is the WTO's duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.[33][35] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.[36] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
The WTO is also a center of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.[37] Finally, the WTO cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank.[34] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard
The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and current trade regime.[54] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last more if the country is less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest was that of Russia, which, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, was approved for membership in December 2011 and became a WTO member on 22 August 2012.[55] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard
The second longest was that of Vanuatu, whose Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was established on 11 July 1995. After a final meeting of the Working Party in October 2001, Vanuatu requested more time to consider its accession terms. In 2008, it indicated its interest to resume and conclude its WTO accession. The Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was reconvened informally on 4 April 2011 to discuss Vanuatu's future WTO membership. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard
The re-convened Working Party completed its mandate on 2 May 2011. The General Council formally approved the Accession Package of Vanuatu on 26 October 2011. On 24 August 2012, the WTO welcomed Vanuatu as its 157th member.[56] An offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested parties.[57] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.[58]The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members.[57] GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard
After all necessary background information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.[54] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard
The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally.[58] ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard
When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-be's commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard
The WTO has 159 members and 25 observer governments.[60] In addition to states, the European Union is a member. WTO members do not have to be full sovereign nation-members. Instead, they must be a customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. HP Mini 110-1033cl Laptop Keyboard
Thus Hong Kong has been a member since 1995 (as "Hong Kong, China" since 1997) predating the People's Republic of China, which joined in 2001 after 15 years of negotiations. The Republic of China (Taiwan) acceded to the WTO in 2002 as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu,Kinmen and Matsu" (Chinese Taipei) despite its disputed status.[61] The WTO Secretariat omits the official titles (such as Counselor, ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard
First Secretary, Second Secretary and Third Secretary) of the members of Chinese Taipei's Permanent Mission to the WTO, except for the titles of the Permanent Representative and the Deputy Permanent Representative.[62] DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard
Iran is the biggest economy outside the WTO.[63] With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. A number of international intergovernmental organizations have also been granted observer status to WTO bodies.[64] FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 Laptop Keyboard
14 states and two territories so far have no official interaction with the WTO.
The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession.[65] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows. Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard
The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domestic support, market access and export subsidies. The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading system to service sector, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard
in the same way as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided such a system for merchandise trade. The agreement entered into force in January 1995. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rightssets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard
The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures—also known as the SPS Agreement—was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of GATT, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members'ASUS A3H laptop keyboard
policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases). The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, ACER Aspire 5738PZG laptop keyboard
and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994. The object ensures that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade".[66] The Agreement on Customs Valuation, formally known as the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of GATT, prescribes methods of customs valuation that Members are to follow. Chiefly, it adopts the "transaction value" approach. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Baghdad, Berlin, Constantinople, Ancient Cusco, London, Athens, Madrid, Moscow, Ancient Rome, Beijing, Stockholm, Tokyo, andVienna. FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 laptop keyboard
The capital city naturally attracts politically motivated people and those whose skills are needed for efficient administration of national or imperial governments, such as lawyers, political scientists, bankers, journalists, and public policy makers. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e.g. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard
Constantinople (more than one religion), Rome (the Roman Catholic Church), Jerusalem (Judaism), Ancient Baghdad, London (the Anglican Church), Moscow (theRussian Orthodox Church), Belgrade (the Serbian Orthodox Church), Paris, and Peking. ACER PK13ZLH0100 laptop keyboard
A capital city that is also the prime economic, cultural, or intellectual centre of a nation or an empire is sometimes referred to as a primate city. Examples are Athens, Belgrade, Bratislava, Brussels, Bucharest, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Copenhagen, Dublin, Istanbul, Lima, Lisbon, London, Madrid, Manila,Montevideo, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
Mexico City, Nairobi, Paris, Prague, Riga, Rome, Santiago, Seoul, Skopje, Sofia, Stockholm, Tirana, Tokyo, Vienna, Vilnius, and Warsaw.
The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal. Traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e.g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its capital city, as occurred at Babylon and Cahokia. HP Pavilion dv5-1132la Laptop Keyboard
Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such: for example Bern, Edinburgh,Lisbon, London, Melbourne, Paris, and Wellington. They are recognised as capitals as a matter of convention, and because all or almost all the country's central political institutions, such as government departments, supreme court, legislature, embassies, etc., are located in or near them. HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Laptop Keyboard
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Counties in England, Wales and Scotland have historic county towns, which are often not the largest settlement within the county and often are no longer administrative centres, as many historical counties are now only ceremonial, and administrative boundaries are different.
In Canada, there is a federal capital, Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard
and the ten provinces and three territories all have capital cities. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil(including the famous cities of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, capitals of their respective states), and Australia all have capital cities. For example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, South Australia; Brisbane, Queensland; Hobart, COMPAQ Presario CQ60-201EP Laptop Keyboard
Tasmania; Melbourne, Victoria; Perth, Western Australia; and Sydney, New South Wales. In Australia, the term "capital cities" is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra andDarwin, the capital of the Northern Territory. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard
In the Federal Republic of Germany, each of its constituent states (or Länder - plural of Land) has its own capital city, such as Dresden, Wiesbaden, Mainz,Düsseldorf, Stuttgart, and Munich. Likewise, each of the republics of the Russian Federation has its own capital city. ASUS X53K Laptop Keyboard
The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the "Gulf War", despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict, when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed back. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard
The Persian Gulf has many good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization, and in particular, oil and petroleum spills during wars in the region. HP G61-452EE Laptop Keyboard
Historically and internationally[2][3][4] known as the Persian Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf by most Arab states,[5] although neither of the latter two terms are recognized internationally. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.[6] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
This inland sea of some 251,000 km2 (96,912 sq mi) is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz; and its western end is marked by the major river delta of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphratesand the Tigris. Its length is 989 kilometres, with Iran covering most of the northern coast and Saudi Arabia most of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf is about 56 kilometres wide at its narrowest, DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard
in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are overall very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres and an average depth of 50 metres.
Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from the north): Iran, Oman (exclave of Musandam), United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar on apeninsula off the Saudi coast, Bahrain on an island, Kuwait and Iraq in the northwest. Various small islands lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states of the region. HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard
Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization refers to the gulf as the "Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf)", and defines its southern limit as "The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman". This limit is defined as "A line joining Ràs Limah (25°57'N) on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh (25°48'N) on the coast of Iran (Persia)".[6] Compaq Presario CQ57-229wm laptop keyboard
The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of crude oil, and related industries dominate the region. Safaniya Oil Field, the world's largest offshore oilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquified natural gas (LNG) and petrochemical industry. Compaq Presario CQ42 laptop keyboard
In 2002, the Persian Gulf nations of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, produced about 25% of the world's oil, held nearly two-thirds of the world's crude oil reserves, and about 35% of the world natural gas reserves.[7][8] HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard
The oil-rich countries (excluding Iraq) that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the Persian Gulf States. Iraq's egress to the gulf is narrow and easily blockaded consisting of the marshy river delta of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers, where the east bank is held by Iran. HP Mini 110-3110sp laptop keyboard
No written record has remained from the era before the Persian Empire, but in the oral history and culture, the Iranians have called the southern waters: "Jam Sea", "Iran Sea", and "Pars Sea".
During the years 550 to 330 BC, coinciding with the sovereignty of the first Persian Empire over the Middle East area, especially the whole part of the Persian Gulf and some parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the name of "Pars Sea" is widely found in the compiled written texts.[1] HP AEAX8U00010 laptop keyboard
In the travel account of Pythagoras, several chapters are related to description of his travels accompanied byDarius the Great, to Susa and Persepolis, and the area is described. From among the writings of others in the same period, there is the inscription and engraving of Darius the great, installed at junction of waters of Red Sea (also called "Arabian Gulf" or "Ahmar Sea") and the Nile river and the Rome river (current Mediterranean) which belongs to the 5th century BC where, Darius the Great, the king of the Achaemenid Empire has named the Persian Gulf Water Channel: Pars Sea (Persian Sea).[1] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard
The shallow basin that now underlies the Gulf was an extensive region of river valley and wetlands during the transition between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the start of the Holocene, which, according to University of Birmingham archaeologist Jeffrey Rose, served as an environmental refuge for early humans during periodic hyperarid climate oscillations, laying the foundations for the legend of Dilmun[15] SONY VAIO VGN-N11M laptop keyboard
For most of the early history of the settlements in the Persian Gulf, the southern shores were ruled by a series of nomadic tribes. During the end of the fourth millennium BC, the southern part of the Persian Gulf was dominated by the Dilmun civilization. For a long time the most important settlement on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf was Gerrha. HP Pavilion ze5623 laptop keyboard
In the 2nd century the Lakhum tribe, who lived in what is now Yemen, migrated north and founded the Lakhmid Kingdom along the southern coast. Occasional ancient battles took place along the Persian Gulf coastlines, between the Sassanid Persian empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom, the most prominent of which was the invasion led by Shapur II against the Lakhmids, leading to Lakhmids' defeat, and advancement into Arabia, along the southern shore lines.[16] During the 7th century the Sassanid Persian empire conquered the whole of the Persian Gulf, including southern and northern shores. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard
Between 625 BC and 226 AD, the northern side was dominated by a succession of Persian empires including the Median,Achaemenid, Seleucid and Parthian empires. Under the leadership of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great (Darius I), Persian ships found their way to the Persian Gulf.[17] SONY VAIO PCG-FRV37 laptop keyboard
Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence in Persian Gulf, that started with Darius I and existed until the arrival of the British East India Company, and theRoyal Navy by mid-19th century AD. Persians were not only stationed on islands of the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling empire's various rivers including Shatt-al-Arab, Tigris, and the Nile in the west, as well as Sind waterway, in India.[17] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
The Achaemenid high naval command had established major naval bases located along Shatt al-Arab river, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet would soon not only be used for peacekeeping purposes along the Shatt al-Arab but would also open the door to trade with India via Persian Gulf.[17][18] IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard
Following the fall of Achaemenid Empire, and after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Sassanid empire ruled the northern half and at times the southern half of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with the Silk Road, were important trade routes in the Sassanid empire. Many of the trading ports of the Persian empires were located in or around Persian Gulf.Siraf, an ancient Sassanid port that was located on the northern shore of the gulf, HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr laptop keyboard
located in what is now the Iranian province of Bushehr, is an example of such commercial port. Siraf, was also significant in that it had a flourishing commercial trade with China by the 4th century, having first established connection with the far east in 185 AD.[19] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard
Colonial era
See also: British Residency of the Persian Gulf
Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following Vasco da Gama's voyages of exploration saw them battle the Ottomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commander Antonio Correiainvaded Bahrain to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard
On April 29, 1602, Shāh Abbās, the Persianemperor of the Safavid Persian Empire expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain,[20] and that date is commemorated as National Persian Gulf day in Iran.[21] With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island of Hormuz from the Portuguese; TOSHIBA Satellite L300-14G laptop keyboard
much of the trade was diverted to the town of Bandar 'Abbās, which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened by Persians to a flourishing commerce with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and the British merchants, who were granted particular privileges. ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard
In World War II, the Western Allies used Iran as a conduit to transport military and industrial supply to Russia (USSR), through a pathway known historically as the "Persian Corridor". This path would utilize the Trans-Iranian Railway, but in order for the supply to be transported to Iran, Britain utitlized the Persian Gulf as the entry point for the supply chain.[22] Persian Gulf therefore became a critical maritime path through which the Allies transported equipment, to Russia against the Nazi invasion.[23] HP G72-a10SV Laptop Keyboard
From 1763 until 1971, the British Empire maintained varying degrees of political control over some of the Persian Gulf states, including the United Arab Emirates (originally called the "Trucial Coast States")[24][25] and at various times Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar through the British Residency of the Persian Gulf. United Kingdom maintains a high profile in the region to date; in 2006 alone, over 1 million British nationals visited Dubai.[26] HP G42-477TU Laptop Keyboard
The wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique due to the gulf's geographic distribution and its isolation from the international waters only breached by the narrow Strait of Hormuz. The Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of which are near extinction or at serious environmental risk. From corals, to dugongs, Persian Gulf is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard
A great example of this symbiosis are the mangroves in the gulf, which require tidal flow and a combination of fresh and salt water for growth, and act as nurseries for many crabs, small fish, and insects; these fish and insects are the source of food for many of the marine birds that feed on them.[28] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard
Mangroves are a diverse group of shrubs and trees belonging to the genus Avicennia or Rhizophora that flourish in the salt water shallows of the gulf, and are the most important habitats for small crustaceans that dwell in them. They are as crucial an indicator of biological health on the surface of the water, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard
as the corals are to biological health of the gulf in deeper waters. Mangroves' ability to survive the salt water through intricate molecular mechanisms, their unique reproductive cycle, and their ability to grow in the most oxygen-deprived waters have allowed them extensive growth in hostile areas of the gulf.[29][30]Unfortunately, however, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-14N Laptop Keyboard
with the advent of artificial island development, most of their habitat is destroyed, or occupied by man-made structures. This has had a negative impact on the crustaceans that rely on the mangrove, and in turn on the species that feed on them. HP 502958-001 Laptop Keyboard
One of the most unique marine mammals living in the Persian Gulf is Dugong dugon, commonly referred to as the dugong, or the "sea cow". Called "sea cows" for their grazing habits, their mild manner and resemblance to the livestock, dugongs have a life expectancy similar to that of humans and can reach lengths of up to 3 meters. These gentle mammals feed on the sea grass and genetically resemble the land mammals more than the dolphins and the whales.[31] Despite the simplicity of their grass diet, TOSHIBA Satellite 1870 Laptop Keyboard
new developments along the Persian Gulf coastline, particularly artificial island development in Arab states, pollution particularly by oil spills caused during the "Persian Gulf war" and also due to occasional oil spills, and uncontrolled hunting has had a negative impact on the survival of the dugongs.[31] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard
After Australian waters with some 80,000 dugong inhabitants, the waters off Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Saudi Arabia have some 7,500 dugongs remaining, making the Persian Gulf the second most important habitat for the species. HP 488590-001 Laptop Keyboard
Dugong's current number is dwindling and it is not clear how many are currently alive or what their reproductive trend is.[31][32] Unfortunately, ambitious and uncalculated construction schemes, political unrest and an ever present international conflict, and presence of the most lucrative world supply of oil, along with lack of cooperation between Arab states and Iran, has had a negative impact on the survival of many marine species, including dugongs. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard
Coral is another important inhabitant of the Persian Gulf waters. Corals are vital ecosystems that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the gulf. Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the gulf, partially owing to global warming but majorly due to irresponsible dumping by Arab states like UAE and Bahrain.[33] Construction garbage such as tires, HP Mini 110-1125NR Laptop Keyboard
cement, and chemical by products have found their way to the Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, the construction waste creates "traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die.[33] The end result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number of species that rely on the corals for their survival. TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5165RM Laptop Keyboard
The Persian Gulf is also home to many migratory and local birds. There is great variation in color, size, and type of the bird species that call the gulf home. One bird in particular, the kalbaensis, a sub-species of the kingfishers is at the brink of extinction due to real state development by cities such as Dubai and countries such as Oman.[28] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard
Estimates from 2006 showed that only three viable nesting sites were available for this ancient bird, one located 80 miles from Dubai, and two smaller sites in Oman, all of which are in the process of becoming real estate developments.[28] Such expansion would prove devastating and could cause this species to become extinct. ACER TravelMate 3212WXMi Laptop Keyboard
Unfortunately for the kingfisher, a U.N. plan to protect the mangroves as a biological reserve was blatantly ignored by the emirate of Sharjah, which allowed the dredging of a channel that bisects the wetland and construction of an adjacent concrete walkway.[28] SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard
Environmental watchdogs in Arabia are few, and those that do advocate the wildlife are often silenced or ignored by developers of real estate, most of whom have royal family connections and huge energy profits to invest.[28] The end result has been sacrifice of a beautiful yet delicate ecology that has been in harmony for hundreds of years, for structures that are erected only a few years, yet will have a lasting detrimental effect. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard
Almost no species in the Persian Gulf is spared from the real estate development of UAE and Oman, including the hawksbill turtle, the flamingo, and the bootedwarblers, mainly due to destruction of the mangrove habitats to make way for towers, hotels, and luxury resorts.[28][34] Even dolphins that frequent the gulf in northern waters, HP 646568-001 Laptop Keyboard
around Iran are at serious risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse seine fishing nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps the most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran's Hormozgan province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs.[35][36] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Laptop Keyboard
The Persian Gulf is also home to over 700 species of fish, most of which are native to the gulf.[37] Of these 700 species, more than 80% are coral reef associated, and directly or indirectly depend on the coral reef for their survival. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard
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Most pollution is from ships; land generated pollution counts as the second most common source of pollution,[38] ranging from mercury, to acidic or basic toxins. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard
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