Riyadh

Riyadh

largest city. It is also the capital of Riyadh Province, and belongs to the historical regions of Najd and Al-Yamama. It is situated in the center of the Arabian Peninsula on a large plateau, and is home to 5,254,560 people, and the urban center of a region with a population of close to 7 million people. HP Hp Envy 17-2077ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The city is divided into 15 municipal districts, managed by Riyadh Municipality headed by the mayor of Riyadh, and the Riyadh Development Authority, chaired by the Governor of Riyadh Province, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz. The current mayor of Riyadh is Abdullah Bin Abdul Rahman Al Mogbel, appointed in 2012. Riyadh has the largest all female university in the world, the Princess Nora bint Abdulrahman University.[1] HP Mini 110-1120SL Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

It has been designated as a Beta World City. During the Pre-Islamic era the settlement at the site was called Hajr (Arabic: حجر‎), and was reportedly founded by the tribe of Banu Hanifa.[2] Hajr served as the capital of the province of Al Yamamah, whose governors were responsible for most of central and eastern Arabia during the Umayyad and Abbasid eras. Al-Yamamah broke away from the Abbasid Empire in 866 and the area fell under the rule of the Ukhaydhirites, who moved the capital from Hajr to nearby Al Kharj. HP G62-b10ST laptop keyboard

The city then went into a long period of decline. In the 14th century, North African traveller Ibn Battuta wrote of his visit to Hajr, describing it as "the main city of Al-Yamamah, and its name is Hajr". Ibn Battuta goes on to describe it as a city of canals and trees with most of its inhabitants belonging to Bani Hanifa, and reports that he continued on with their leader to Mecca to perform the Hajj.  FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 laptop keyboard

Later on, Hajr broke up into several separate settlements and estates. The most notable of these were Migrin (or Muqrin) and Mi'kal, though the name Hajrcontinued to appear in local folk poetry. The earliest known reference to the area by the name Riyadh comes from a 17th-century chronicler reporting on an event from the year 1590. In 1737, Deham ibn Dawwas, a refugee from neighboring Manfuha, took control of Riyadh. Ibn Dawwas built a single wall to encircle the various quarters of Riyadh, making them effectively a single town.  Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

The First Saudi State was destroyed by forces sent by Muhammad Ali of Egypt, acting on behalf of the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman forces razed the Saudi capital Diriyah in 1818. In 1823, Turki ibn Abdallah, the founder of the Second Saudi State, revived the state and chose Riyadh as the new capital. Lenovo Thinkpad X220T laptop keyboard

Internecine struggles between Turki's grandsons led to the fall of the Second Saudi State in 1891 at the hand of the rival Al Rashid clan, who ruled from the northern city of Ha'il. Riyadh itself fell under the rule of Al Rashid in 1865. The al-Masmak fort dates from that period.

The city was recaptured in 1902 from the Al Rashid family by King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. He went on to establish the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, with Riyadh the capital of the nation. HP Mini 110-3004tu laptop keyboard

Riyadh is divided into 15 branch municipalities,[4] in addition to the Diplomatic Quarter. Each branch municipality in turn contains several districts,[5] though some districts are divided between more than one branch municipality.[4] COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard

The branch municipalities are Al-Shemaysi, Irqah, Al-Ma'athar, Al-Olayya, Al-Aziziyya, Al-Malaz, Al-Selayy, Nemar, Al-Neseem, Al-Shifa, Al-'Urayja, Al-Bat'ha, Al-Ha'ir, Al-Rawdha, and Al-Shimal ("the North"). Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard6]

The Diplomatic Quarter, or DQ as it is popularly known, is home to foreign embassies and international organizations as well as residential structures and malls. With lush gardens and numerous sports facilities, it is also one of the city's greenest areas. It is especially known for its fi ne architecture, and is considered[by whom?] SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard

a model for other Islamic cities around the world. Despite its name, the special privileges offered in the Diplomatic Quarter constitute a controversial issue. All Saudi laws must be obeyed and there are occasional patrols by the Mutaween, or Saudi religious police. However, foreign diplomats and their families are allowed certain privileges and it is not very uncommon to see foreign diplomats and their wives strolling on the streets of the DQ in shorts and short-sleeve shirts.[citation needed] SONY VAIO VGN-FS940 laptop keyboard

The centre of the city, Al-Bathaa and Al-Dirah, is also its oldest part. At its heart lies the 19th-century Al Masmak fort, which is one of the city's major attractions; to the west lies the Riyadh Museum of History and Archeology and the Murabba' Palace, an old residence of first Saudi king, Ibn Saud, now a museum. SONY VAIO VGN-FS195VP laptop keyboard

The Qasr Al-Hukm, or Palace of Justice, is nearby. It is here that the Governor of Riyadh Province meets citizens, listens to their grievances and problems, and stays abreast of all aspects of the region's life. The Al-Dira area also contains commercial markets and traditional buildings, such as the Al-Mu'eiqilia market and the city's Grand Mosque. SONY VAIO VGN-FS730 laptop keyboard

The old town of Riyadh within the city Walls did exceed an area of 1 square km, therefore very few significant architectural remnants of the original walled oasis town of Riyadh exist today. The most prominent is the al-Masmak fort and some parts of the original wall structure with its gate which have been restored and reconstructed. There are also a number of traditional mud-brick houses within these old limits, however they are for the most part dilapidated. COMPAQ 490949-001 laptop keyboard

Expansion outside the city walls was slow to begin with, although there were some smaller oases and settlements surrounding Riyadh[citation needed]. The first major construction beyond the walls was King Abdulaziz's Murabba' palace. It was constructed in 1936, completed in 1937, and a household of 800 people moved into it in 1938. DELL V110546AS1 laptop keyboard

palace was big enough to be mistaken as the city of Riyadh by travelers approaching it from the north. During the life King Abdulaziz, the palace was subject to numerous expansions of the grounds and buildings. It was constructed in the style of Najdi architecture consisting of mud-bricks, and marked by a level of architectural maturity that was unprecedented on that scale[citation needed]. Presently, COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard

only a fragment of what it encompassed is restored and rebuilt in the traditional manner. However, the palace is now part of a bigger complex called "The King Abdulaziz Historical Centre".ACER Acer Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

There are other traditional villages and towns in the area around traditional Riyadh which the urban sprawl reached and currently encompasses. These areDiriyah, Manfuha and Wadi Laban to name a few. Unlike in the early days of development in Riyadh during which vernacular structures were razed to the ground without consideration, there is a new-found appreciation for traditional architecture. The Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities is making efforts for revitalizing the historic architecture in Riyadh and other parts of the kingdom.[20] SAMSUNG N148 Laptop Keyboard

The tower is built on 94,230 square meters of land. The Kingdom Centre is owned by a group of companies including Kingdom Holding Co. headed by Al-Waleed bin Talal, a prince of the Saudi royal family, and is the headquarters of his holding company, the Kingdom Holding Company. The project cost 2 billion Saudi Arabian Riyals and the contract was undertaken bySaudi Binladin Group.  FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard

The Kingdom Centre is located on Al-Urubah Road between King Fahd Road and Olaya Street in the growing business district of Al-Olaya.[clarification needed] The Kingdom Centre is the winner of the 2002 Emporis Skyscraper Award, selected as the "best new skyscraper of the year for design and functionality". A three-level shopping center, which also won a major design award, fills the east wing. The large opening is illuminated at night in continuously changing colors. The shopping center has a separate floor for women only to shop where men are not allowed to enter. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Riyadh is one of the richest cities in the Middle East and the 80th richest city in the world. Once a small walled city, Riyadh has developed into a dynamicmetropolis over the years. Along with the urban areas of Dhahran, Dammam, Khobar and Jeddah, Riyadh has become a focal point for both travel and trade. SONY Vaio SONY PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

In addition to being the center of power, the city is also a commercial hub. Numerous educational, financial, agricultural, cultural, technical, and social organizations have set up base here. The architecture is mostly modern, including contemporary high-rise towers, but the Al-Dira district, the nucleus of the city, has been rebuilt in a style meant to evoke the old mud-brick buildings of pre-20th century Nejd. DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard

From the beginning of oil exploration in Saudi Arabia to the present day, the government has promoted growth in the private sector by privatizing industries such as power and telecommunications. Saudi Arabia announced plans for privatizing the electricity companies. A lot of these new private conglomerates andcompanies headquarters are located in Riyadh, along with National Banks headquarters. Because of that, Riyadh is considered as the capital city financial and business center of the Middle East. HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop Keyboard

King Khalid International Airport has a major impact on the commercial movement in Riyadh, providing air transportation for millions of people each year and shipping goods to the city from all continents. When Sama, a local low-cost airline existed, its head office was in Riyadh.[21][22] HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard

King Abdullah Financial District will be the Middle East's first financial district on a scale, and of regulatory and technological standards, to match the major global financial centres. Explaining the background to the Kingdom's ambitious but attainable strategy, His Majesty said: 'We are blessed with a robust economy, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

a stable currency and a strong financial sector with equally strong supervision.' The intention to construct the world's first major financial district of the twenty first century is the latest stage in what is already a carefully planned and implemented programme of financial modernisation by Saudi Arabia. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7305 Laptop Keyboard

King Fahd road is the main road in Riyadh city and considered as the most beautiful street of Riyadh. It was constructed in 1980-1981. Many business places in Riyadh prefer to locate their head offices on King Fahd road, and headquarters of major companies and organizations are located on both sides of the road. DELL V110546AS1 Laptop Keyboard

Huge malls, business towers and skyscrapers are widely distributed on this road. However, many roads are becoming more attractive to businesses as King Fahd road is now crowded most times of the day. King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz road, Mohammed bin Fahd "Tahlia", Prince Sultan, north ring road have all became alternatives for business and companies' head offices.[citation needed] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

The northern end reaches the Airport over another highway. By many opinions[who?], King Fahd Road is one of the most beautiful streets in Saudi Arabia, making the road a popular tourist attraction. Famous landmarks such as Kingdom Centre, Al Faisaliyah Center, Al Anoud Tower and the Ministry of Interior building are also located on King Fahd Road. However, it is fast becoming second to King Abdullah Street which has seen major building projects and a train track and tunnel system is currently under construction. HP Hp Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Riyadh is served by four Arabic, two English and one Malayalam language newspapers, Asharq Al-Awsat (which is owned by the city governor), Al-Riyadh, Al-Jazeera and Al-Watan. The Saudi Gazette and Arab News are in English. Gulf Madhyamam is in Malayalam language. Television stations serving the city area include Saudi TV1, Saudi TV2, FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Laptop Keyboard

Saudi TV Sports, Al-Ekhbariya, ART channels network. Arabic is the main language used in television and radio but radio broadcasts are also made in different languages such as French, or English; other languages are also used by cable, satellite and other speciality television providers. The Riyadh TV Tower is a 170 m (560 ft) high television tower with an observation deck overlooking Riyadh. Construction was begun on the tower in 1978 and finished in 1981. It is considered part of the Ministry of Information. ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard

Football is the most popular sport in Riyadh. The city hosts four major football clubs, Al-Hilal, which has a reputation for being the most widely supported club in Saudi Arabia, was established in 1957 and has won thirteen championships in the Saudi Premier League. Al-Nasr club is another team in the top league. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

It was established in 1955, and has been named champion of the Saudi League five times. Another well-known club, Al Shabab, which was established in 1947 and holds seven championships. There is also Al-Riyadh Club, which was established in 1954, as well as many other minor clubs. ACER Acer Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

The city also hosts several large stadiums such as King Fahd International Stadium with a seating capacity of 70,000. The stadium hosted the FIFA Confederations Cup three times, in the years 1992, 1995 and 1997. And also the FIFA U-20 World Cup in 1989. HP Hp Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

A global city (also called world city or sometimes alpha city or world center) is a city generally considered to be an important node in the globaleconomic system. The concept comes from geography and urban studies and rests on the idea that globalization can be understood as largely created, facilitated, and enacted in strategic geographic locales according to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

The most complex of these entities is the "global city", whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through socio-economic means.[1] The use of "global city", as opposed to "megacity", was popularized by sociologist Saskia Sassen in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo[2] though the term "world city" to describe cities that control a disproportionate amount of global business dates to at least the May 1886 description of Liverpool by The Illustrated London News.[3] ACER Acer Aspire 5610Z Laptop KeyboardThe Patrick Geddes also used the term "world city" later in 1915.[4] Cities can fall from such categorization, as in the case of cities that have become less cosmopolitan and less internationally renowned in the current era, e.g., Alexandria, Egypt;Coimbra, Portugal; Stralsund, Germany; and Thessaloniki, Greece. HP G62-b10ST laptop keyboard

The first attempt to define, categorize and rank global cities using relational data was made in 1998 by Jon Beaverstock, Richard G. Smith and Peter J. Taylor, who all worked at the time at Loughborough University in the United Kingdom.[23] Together, Beaverstock, Smith and Taylor established the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.  FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 laptop keyboard

A roster of world cities was outlined in the GaWC Research Bulletin 5 and ranked cities based on their connectivity through four "advanced producer services": accountancy, advertising, banking/finance, and law.[5] The GaWC inventory identifies three levels of global cities and several sub-ranks.[24]  Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

The 2004 rankings acknowledged several new indicators while continuing to rank city economics more heavily than political or cultural factors. The 2008 roster, similar to the 1998 version, is sorted into categories of "Alpha" world cities (with four sub-categories), "Beta" world cities (three sub-categories), "Gamma" world cities (three sub-categories) and additional cities with "High sufficiency" or "Sufficiency" presence. The following is a general guide to the rankings:[24] Lenovo Thinkpad X220T laptop keyboard

Princess Nora bint Abdulrahman University (PNU; Arabic: جامعة الأميرة نورة بنت عبد الرحمن‎) is a women's university inSaudi Arabia and largest women-only university in the world.[4][5] It is composed of 32 campuses across the Riyadh region and a new library capable of holding 4.5 million volumes.[3] HP Mini 110-3004tu laptop keyboard

The university was founded as Riyadh University for Women in 1970. King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz launched the building of the world's largest and most modern women's institution of higher education in a self-contained higher education city. A new campus dedicated May 2011 can accommodate 40,000 students and 12,000 employees. It has a 700 bed teaching hospital[4] and research centers for nanotechnology, information technology, and bioscience.[6] COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard

The campus and community has an 11.5 km automated metro for students, which uses the same AnsaldoBreda Driverless Metro technology as the Copenhagen metro.[10][13] It has 22 two car AnsaldoBreda trains each having maximum capacity up to 110 passengers and maximum speed of 60 km/h.[13] On 4 September 2012, theSaudi Railway Authority made the announcement that it would grant the University a license to operate automated trains on campus.[14] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

The expansion of the campus was done in a record time of two years supported by 75,000 construction workers and latest building machinery and methodologies. University City is expected to be fully functional by 2012. SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard

Thirty-eight of its buildings, totaling a million square meters, have applied for a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) green building rating. The campus operates a metro shuttle and electric vehicles, and solar panels power 18% of its air conditioning.[15] The new PNU library has applied for the second highest LEED "Gold" rating. SONY VAIO VGN-FS940 laptop keyboard

Al-Yamamah (Arabic: اليمامة al-Yamāma‎) is an ancient district lying to the east of the plateau of Najd in modern-day Saudi Arabia, or sometimes more specifically, the now-extinct ancient village of Jaww Al-Yamamah, near Al-Kharj, after which the rest of the region was named. Only a handful of centralized states ever arose in Yamamah, but it figured prominently in early Islamic history due to it becoming a central theater in the Ridda Warsimmediately following Muhammad's death. SONY VAIO VGN-FS195VP laptop keyboard

The region was gradually subsumed in recent centuries under the term "Najd", which encompasses a larger area. However, the term "Al-Yamamah" still lives on as a nostalgic historical term that is invoked to emphasize the region's ties with its ancient past. The current headquarters of the Saudigovernment in Riyadh, for example, is known as the Palace of Yamamah. SONY VAIO VGN-FS730 laptop keyboard

The Arabian Peninsula (Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية‎ shibh al-jazīrat al-ʻarabīyah or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻArab) is a land mass situated north-east of Africa. Also known as Arabia[1] or the Arabian subcontinent,[2] it is the world's largestpeninsula and covers 3,237,500 km2 (1,250,000 mi2).[3] COMPAQ 490949-001 laptop keyboard

The area is an important part of the Asian continent and plays a critical geopolitical role of the Middle East and Arab World due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas. The peninsula formed as a result of the rifting of the Red Sea between 56 and 23 million years ago, and is bordered by the Red Sea to the west, the Persian Gulf to the northeast, and the Indian Ocean to the southeast. IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard

The Arabian Peninsula is located in the Asia continent and bounded by (clockwise) the Persian Gulf on the northeast, theStrait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman on the east, the Arabian Sea on the southeast and south, the Gulf of Aden on the south, the Bab-el-Mandeb strait on the southwest, and the Red Sea on the southwest and west.[4]  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

The northern portion of the peninsula merges with the Syrian Desert with no clear border line, although the northern boundary of the Arabian Peninsula is generally considered to be the northern borders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.[4] DELL NSK-DN01D laptop keyboard

The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the southwest there are mountain ranges which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula. Harrat ash Shaam is a large volcanic field that extends from the northwestern Arabian Peninsula into Jordan and southern Syria.[5] DELL V110546AS1 laptop keyboard

The peninsula's constituent countries are (clockwise north to south) Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates(UAE) on the east, Oman on the southeast, Yemen on the south and Saudi Arabia at the center.[4] The island nation of Bahrainlies off the east coast of the peninsula. COMPAQ Presario V5000 laptop keyboard

Six countries, including Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Oman form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), also known as the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. This is however a disputed term. Iranians assert that it is a historical and internationally-recognized convention to name it the Persian Gulf, ACER Acer Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

while Arab States, and most notably the six GCC member countries, have been claiming that the Gulf is Arabian since its shallow marine depths are a geological continuity of the Arabian peninsula's Eastern low-lying coasts, from Kuwait to the UAE's Northern Emirates.[6] SAMSUNG N148 Laptop Keyboard

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the greater part of the peninsula. The majority of the population of the peninsula live in Saudi Arabia and in Yemen. The peninsula contains the world's largest reserves of oil. The UAE and Saudi Arabia are economically the wealthiest in the region.  FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard

Qatar, a small peninsula in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home of the famous Arabic-language television station Al Jazeera and its English-language subsidiary Al Jazeera English. Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the invasion of Iraq in 2003. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Geologically, this region is perhaps more appropriately called the Arabian subcontinent because it lies on a tectonic plateof its own, the Arabian Plate, which has been moving incrementally away from the rest of Africa (forming the Red Sea) and north, toward Asia, into the Eurasian plate (forming the Zagros mountains). SONY Vaio SONY PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the Arabian-Nubian Shield near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best-preserved ophiolite on Earth, the Semail ophiolite, lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman. DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard

Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most areas are drained by ephemeral watercourses called wadis, which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient aquifers exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, oases form (e.g., Al-Hasa and Qatif, two of the worlds largest oases) and permit agriculture, especially palm trees, which allowed the peninsula to produce more dates than any other region in the world. HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop Keyboard

 In general, the climate is extremely hot and arid, although there are exceptions. Higher elevations are made temperate by their altitude, and the Arabian Sea coastline can receive surprisingly cool, humid breezes in summer due to cold upwelling offshore. The peninsula has no thick forests, although desert-adapted wildlife is present throughout the region. HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard

A plateau more than 2,500 feet (760 m) high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of the Persian Gulf. The interior is characterised by cuestas and valleys, drained by a system of wadis. A crescent of sand and gravel deserts lies to the east. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Most of the Arabian Peninsula is unsuited to agriculture, making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential.The narrow coastal plain and isolated oases, amounting to less than 1% of the land area, are used to cultivate grains, coffee andtropical fruits. Goat, sheep, and camel husbandry is widespread elsewhere throughout the rest of the Peninsula.Some areas have a summer humid tropical monsoon climate, in particular the Dhofar and Al Mahrah areas of Oman and Yemen. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7305 Laptop Keyboard

These areas allow for large scale coconut plantations. Much of Yemen has a tropical monsoon rain influenced mountain climate. The plains usually have either a tropical or subtropical arid desert climate or arid steppe climate.The sea surrounding the Arabian Peninsula is generally tropical sea with a very rich tropical sea life and some of the world's largest, undestroyed and most pristine coral reefs. DELL V110546AS1 Laptop Keyboard

In addition, the organisms living in symbiosis with the Red Sea coral, the protozoa and zooxanthellae, have a unique hot weather adaptation to sudden rise (and fall) in sea water temperature. Hence these coral reefs are not affected by coral bleaching caused by rise in temperature as elsewhere in the indopacific coral sea. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

The reefs are also unaffected by mass tourism and diving or other large scale human interference. However, some reefs where destroyed in thePersian Gulf, mostly caused by phosphate water pollution and resultant increase in algae growth as well as oil pollution from ships and pipeline leakage. HP Hp Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

The fertile soils of Yemen have encouraged settlement of almost all of the land from sea level up to the mountains at 10,000 feet (3,000 m). In the higher reaches elaborate terraces have been constructed to facilitate grain, fruit, coffee, ginger andkhat cultivation. FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Laptop Keyboard

The Arab inhabitants used a north-south division of Arabia: Al Sham-Al Yaman, or Arabia Deserta-Arabia Felix. Arabia Felix had originally been used for the whole peninsula, and at other times only for the southern region. Because its use became limited to the south, the whole peninsula was simply called Arabia. ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard

Arabia Deserta was the entire desert region extending north from Arabia Felix to Palmyra and the Euphrates, including all the area between Pelusium on the Nile and Babylon. This area was also called Arabia and not sharply distinguished from the peninsula.[10] ACER Acer Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

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The Arabs and the Ottoman Empire considered the west of the Arabian Peninsula region where the Arabs lived 'the land of the Arabs' – bilad al-Arab (Arabia), and its major divisions were the bilad al-Sham (Syria), bilad al-Yaman (the Land of the southern Peninsula), and Bilad al-Iraq and modern day Kuwait (the Land of the River Banks).[11] HP Hp Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

The Ottomans used the term Arabistan in a broad sense for the subcontinent itself starting from Cilicia, where the Euphrates river makes its descent into Syria, through Palestine, and on through the remainder of the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas[12] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

The provinces of Arabia were: Al Tih, the Sinai peninsula, Hedjaz, Asir, Yemen, Hadramaut, Mahra and Shilu, Oman, Hasa, Bahrian, Dahna, Nufud, the Hammad, which included the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia and Babylonia. ACER Acer Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

The history of the Arabian Peninsula goes back to the beginnings of human habitation in Arabia up to 20,000 years ago. The region has twice in world history had a global impact. The first was in the 7th century when it became the cradle of Islam. The second was from the mid-20th century when the discovery of vast oil deposits propelled it into a key economic and geo-political role. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

At other times, the region existed in relative obscurity and isolation, although from the 7th century the cities of Mecca and Medina had the highest spiritual significance for the Islamic world, Mecca being the destination for theHajj annual pilgrimage. DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

The seventh century saw the introduction of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. The Islamic prophet Muhammad, was born in Mecca in about 570 and first began preaching in the city in 610, but migrated to Medina in 622. From there he and his companions united the tribes of Arabia under the banner of Islam and created a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the Arabian peninsula. DELL NSK-DN01D Laptop Keyboard

He established a new unified polity in the Arabian peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula in the form of a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees. SONY Vaio SONY PCG-K25 Laptop Keyboard

Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632 AD, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[23] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Following Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr became leader of the Muslims as the first Caliph. After putting down a rebellion by the Arab tribes (known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy"), Abu Bakr attacked the Byzantine Empire. On his death in 634, he was succeeded by Umar as caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. The period of these first four caliphs is known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn (R.A): DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

the Rashidun or "rightly guided" Caliphate. Under the Rashidun Caliphs, and, from 661, their Umayyad successors, the Arabs rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim control outside of Arabia. In a matter of decades Muslim armies decisively defeated the Byzantine army and destroyed the Persian Empire,conquering huge swathes of territory from the Iberian peninsula to India. The political focus of the Muslim world then shifted to the newly conquered territories.[24][25] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Nevertheless, Mecca and Medina remained the spiritually most important places in the Muslim world. The Qu'ran requires every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it, as one of the five pillars of Islam, to make a pilgrimage, or Hajj, to Mecca during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah at least once in his or her lifetime.[26] FUJITSU Lifebook T4220 Laptop Keyboard

The Masjid al-Haram (the Grand Mosque) inMecca is the location of the Kaaba, Islam's holiest site, and the Masjid al-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque) in Medina is the location of Muhammad tomb; as a result, from the 7th century, Mecca and Medina became the pilgrimage destinations for large numbers of Muslims from across the Islamic world.[27] HP Pavilion dv5-1111ea Laptop Keyboard

The Damascus Protocol of 1914 provides an illustration of the regional relationships. Arabs living in one of the existing districts of the Arabian peninsula, the Emirate of Hejaz, asked for a British guarantee of independence. ACER TravelMate 3002WTMi Laptop Keyboard

 Their proposal included all Arab lands south of a line roughly corresponding to the northern frontiers of present-day Syria and Iraq. They envisioned a new Arab state, or confederation of states, adjoining the southern Arabian Peninsula. It would have comprised Cilicia – İskenderun and Mersin, Iraqwith Kuwait, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine.[31] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

In the modern era, the term bilad al-Yaman came to refer specifically to the southwestern parts of the peninsula. Arab geographers started to refer to the whole peninsula as 'jazirat al-Arab', or the peninsula of the Arabs.[32] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

In the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottomans embarked on an ambitious project: the construction of a railway connecting Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire and the seat of the Islamic Caliphate, andHejaz with its holiest shrines of Islam which are the yearly pilgrimage destination of the Hajj. HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard

Another important goal was to improve the economic and political integration of the distant Arabian provinces into the Ottoman state, and to facilitate the transportation of military troops in case of need. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

The Hejaz Railway was a narrow gauge railway (1050 mm) that ran from Damascus to Medina, through the Hejaz region of Arabia. It was a part of the Ottoman railway network and was built in order to extend the previously existing line between Istanbul and Damascus (which began from the Haydarpaşa Terminal) all the way to the holy city of Mecca(eventually being able to reach only Medina due to the interruption of the construction works caused by the outbreak of World War I). SONY KFRMBA221A Laptop Keyboard

The railway was started in 1900 at the behest of the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II and was built largely by theTurks, with German advice and support. A public subscription was opened throughout the Islamic world to fund the construction. The railway was to be a waqf, an inalienable religious endowment or charitable trust.[33] HP AELX9U00210 Laptop Keyboard

The major developments of the early 20th century were the Arab Revolt during World War I and the subsequent collapse and partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. The Arab Revolt (1916–1918) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Aliwith the aim of securing independence from the ruling Ottoman Empire and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo in Syria to Aden in Yemen. During World War I, the Sharif Hussein entered into an alliance with the United Kingdom and France against the Ottomans in June 1916. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

These events were followed by the unification of Saudi Arabia under King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. In 1902 Ibn Saud had capturedRiyadh. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Hasa, the rest of Nejd, and the Hejaz between 1913 and 1926, defeating the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali, and founded the modern state of Saudi Arabia. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Ibn Saud was not the first Saudi ruler to control much of Arabia. The house of Saud had been ruling parts of Arabia since the 17th century AD. Two Saudi states were formed and controlled much of Arabia before Ibn Saud was even born. Ibn Saud however, established the third Saudi state. HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

The North Yemen Civil War was fought in North Yemen between royalists of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen and factions of the Yemen Arab Republic from 1962 to 1970. The war began with a coup d'etat carried out by the republican leader, Abdullah as-Sallal, which dethroned the newly crowned Imam Al-Badr and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border and rallied popular support. SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard

The royalist side received support from Saudi Arabia, while the republicans were supported by Egypt and the Soviet Union. Both foreign irregular and conventional forces were also involved. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the republicans with as many as 70,000 troops. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egypt's commitment to the war is considered to have been detrimental to its performance in the Six-Day War of June 1967, ACER Acer Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

after which Nasser found it increasingly difficult to maintain his army's involvement and began to pull his forces out of Yemen.

By 1970, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia recognized the republic and a truce was signed. Egyptian military historians refer to the war in Yemen as their Vietnam.[34] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

The British proposed a treaty with the Ottoman Empire in 1913 to establish Kuwait as an autonomous kaza. It was a district of the vilayet of Basra. The treaty was never ratified due to the outbreak of World War I. In 1990 Iraq made claims upon Kuwaiti territory, and insisted that the borders had never been properly delimited by the British in 1951.[35] DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi forces led to the 1990–91 Gulf War. Egypt, Qatar, Syria and Saudi Arabia joined a multinational coalition that opposed Iraq. Displays of support for Iraq by Jordan and the Palestinians resulted in strained relations between many of the Arab states. After the war, a so-called "Damascus Declaration" formalized an alliance for future joint Arab defensive actions between Egypt, Syria, and the GCC states.[36] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

Manfuha (Arabic: منفوحة‎) was an ancient village in the Nejd region of central Saudi Arabia. Established on the edge of the narrow, fertile valley known as Wadi Hanifa, Manfuha was until the mid-20th century considered a twin village to the current Saudi capital of Riyadh. TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

According to Yaqut's 13th century geographical encyclopedia Mu'jam Al-Buldan, Manfuha was built a few centuries before Islam at the same time as Hajr (now Riyadh) by members of the Banu Hanifa tribe and their cousins from the tribe of Bakr. Manfuha was home to the famous Arab poet Al-A'sha, who died at around the same time as the Muslim prophet Muhammad, but little is heard of Manfuha after that time. HP Mini 110-3131se Laptop Keyboard

At the turn of the 20th century, its population was made up largely of members of Banu Hanifa and Bakr (who by now had come to identify themselves with the related tribe of 'Anizzah), as well as members of Tamim and Subay'. Like all Nejdi towns, its population also included a large percentage of non-tribally-affiliated tradesmen (sonnaa'), as well as many slaves and freedmen working as agricultural laborers. Like Riyadh, the town was surrounded by gardens and palm groves. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

In the late 18th century, Manfuha fell under the rule of the energetic ruler of Riyadh, Deham ibn Dawwas, who at the time was vigorously resisting the expansion of the new Wahhabist state established by the Al Saud clan of neighboring Diriyah (see First Saudi State). Both towns eventually succumbed to the Saudis, however, who ruled over Manfuha until their state was destroyed by an Ottoman-Egyptian invasion in 1818. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

From then on, the town's fortunes largely followed those of its neighbor, Riyadh, returning to Saudi rule under Turki ibn Abdallah in 1824, then falling under the rule of the Al Rashid clan of Ha'il in the 1890s, before reverting to Saudi rule less than ten years later under the founder of Saudi Arabia, Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard

As the neighboring Saudi capital expanded exponentially in the 20th century, fueled by the country's oil wealth, the walls of both Manfuha and Riyadh were torn down, and Manfuha was quickly swallowed in whole by the growing metropolis. Today, Manfuha is among the poorer districts of Riyadh. Acer Aspire 1651WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Most of its original inhabitants have left to newer districts of the capital, and the area is now mostly inhabited by low-income guest-workers from Egypt and South Asia, as well as the families of former African slaves. Some of the town's old mud-brick buildings remain, as well as an ancient observation tower. A wide avenue cuts through the center of Manfuha, named Al-A'sha Street, after its most famous son. Acer Aspire 1652WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The spelling of Muhammad Ali's first name in both Arabic, and Ottoman Turkish was consistent: محمد (Muhammad). This is the name by which he was known to his Egyptian subjects, and the name used uniformly in Egyptian, and Arab historical scholarship. However, given his original status as a commander in the Ottoman military, his first name is often rendered as Mehmed, which is the standard rendition of that name in Ottoman Turkish, Acer Aspire 1654WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

or Mehmet (Modern Turkish). Current English-language historical scholarship is divided as to which is preferable, with the majority opinion favoring the former. Typically, historians accentuating the Egyptian character of his rule opt for 'Muhammad', whilst those accentuating the Ottoman character opt for 'Mehmed' or 'Mehmet'. This distinction is an issue for those writing in the Latin alphabet, but not in Arabic.[3] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-150EP Laptop Keyboard

Muhammad Ali was born to Albanian parents in the city of Kavala, situated in today's Greek province of Macedonia, then a part of the Ottoman Rumelia Eyalet.[4][5][6][7][8] According to the many French, English and other western journalists who interviewed him, and according to people who knew him, the only language he knew fluently was Albanian although he was also competent in Turkish.[9][10] HP Mini 210-2030ew Laptop Keyboard

The son of a tobacco and shipping merchant named Ibrahim Agha, his mother Zainab was his uncle Husain Agha's daughter. Muhammad Ali was the nephew of the "Ayan of Kavalla" (Çorbaci) Husain Agha. When his father died at a young age, Muhammad was taken and raised by his uncle with his cousins. As a reward for Muhammad Ali's hard work, his uncle Çorbaci gave him the rank of "Bolukbashi" for the collection of taxes in the town of Kavala. HP Compaq G50-118NR Laptop Keyboard

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After his promising success in collecting taxes, he gained Second Commander rank under his cousin Sarechesme Halil Agha in the Kavala Volunteer Contingent that was sent to re-occupy Egypt following General Napoleon Bonaparte's withdrawal. He married Ali Agha's daughter, Emine Nosratli, a wealthy widow of Ali Bey. In 1801, his unit was sent, as part of a larger Ottoman force, to re-occupy Egypt following a brief French occupation. The expedition landed at Aboukir in the spring of 1801.[11]

The French withdrawal left governance in question in the Ottoman province. Mamluk power had been weakened, but not destroyed, and Ottoman forces clashed with the Mamluks for power.[12] During this period of anarchy Muhammad Ali used his loyal Albanian troops to play both sides, gaining power and prestige for himself.[13] ACER Extensa 5235 laptop keyboard

As the conflict drew on, the local populace grew weary of the power struggle. From the period of 1801 until he became Wāli, he was able to make a friendly relationship with Omar Makram as he, along with Al-Azhar Shiekh, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5242BN laptop keyboard

were the only way for him to rise to power. Led by theulema, a group of prominent Egyptians demanded that the Wāli (governor), Ahmad Khurshid Pasha, step down and Muhammad Ali be installed as the new Wāli in 1805. After he became Wāli he exiled Makram because Makram discovered Muhammad Ali's intentions to seize power. This was written by Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti.[13] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

The Ottoman Sultan, Selim III, was not in a position to oppose Muhammad Ali’s ascension, thereby allowing Muhammad Ali to set about consolidating his position. During the infighting between the Ottomans and Mamluks between 1801 and 1805, Muhammad Ali had carefully acted to gain the support of the general public.[14] By appearing as the champion of the people Muhammad Ali was able to forestall popular opposition until he had consolidated his power. SONY AEGD1U00020 laptop keyboard

The Mamluks still posed the greatest threat to Muhammad Ali. They had controlled Egypt for more than 600 years, and over that time they had extended their rule extensively throughout Egypt. Muhammad Ali’s approach was to eliminate the Mamluk leadership, then move against the rank and file. SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard

On March 1, 1811, Muhammad Ali invited the Mamluk leaders to a celebration held at the Cairo Citadel in honor of his son, Tusun, who was being appointed to lead a military expedition into Arabia. When the Mamluks arrived, they were trapped and killed.[a 1] After the leaders were killed, Muhammad Ali dispatched his army throughout Egypt to rout the remainder of the Mamluk forces. SAMSUNG N150 laptop keyboard

Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt into a regional power which he saw as the natural successor to the decaying Ottoman Empire. He summed up his vision for Egypt as follows:

"I am well aware that the (Ottoman) Empire is heading by the day toward destruction...On her ruins I will build a vast kingdom... up to the Euphrates and the Tigris."[17] HP G56 laptop keyboard

Sultan Selim III had recognized the need to reform and modernize the Ottoman Empire along European lines to ensure that his state could compete. Selim III, however, faced stiff local opposition from an entrenched clergy and military apparatus. Consequently, Selim III was deposed and ultimately killed for his efforts. Muhammad Ali, too, recognized the need to modernize, and unlike Selim, he had dispatched his chief rival, giving him a free hand to copy Selim’s attempted reforms. SAMSUNG NP-NB30-JP01 laptop keyboard

Muhammad Ali’s goal was to establish a powerful, European-style state.[18] To do that, he had to reorganize Egyptian society, streamline the economy, train a professional bureaucracy, and build a modern military. HP Mini 110-3102st laptop keyboard

His first task was to secure a revenue stream for Egypt. To accomplish this, Muhammad Ali ‘nationalized’ all the land of Egypt, thereby officially owning all the production of the land. He accomplished the state annexation of property by raising taxes on the ‘tax-farmers’ who had previously owned the land throughout Egypt. The new taxes were intentionally high and when the tax-farmers could not extract the demanded payments from the peasants who worked the land, Muhammad Ali confiscated their properties.[19] Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard

In practice, Muhammad Ali’s land reform amounted to a monopoly on trade in Egypt. He required all producers to sell their goods to the state. The state in turn resold Egyptian goods, within Egypt and to foreign markets, and retained the surplus. The practice proved very profitable for Egypt with the cultivation of long staple cotton. The new-found profits also extended down to the individual farmers, as the average wage increased fourfold.[20] HP Mini 110-3040ss laptop keyboard

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In addition to bolstering the agricultural sector, Muhammad Ali built an industrial base for Egypt. His motivation for doing so was primarily an effort to build a modern military. Consequently, he focused on weapons production. Factories based in Cairo produced muskets and cannons. With a shipyard he built inAlexandria, he began construction of a navy. By the end of the 1830s, Egypt’s war industries had constructed nine 100-gun warships and were turning out 1,600 muskets a month.[21]  HP Mini 110-3536tu laptop keyboard

However, the industrial innovations were not limited to weapons production. Muhammad Ali established a textile industry in an effort to compete with European industries and produce greater revenues for Egypt. While the textile industry was not successful, the entire endeavor employed tens of thousands of Egyptians.[21]  ASUS X88S laptop keyboard

Additionally, by hiring European managers, he was able to introduce industrial training to the Egyptian population. To staff his new industries, Muhammad Ali employed a corvée labor system. The peasantry objected to these conscriptions and many ran away from their villages to avoid being taken, sometimes fleeing as far away as Syria. Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

A number of them maimed themselves so as to be unsuitable for combat: common ways of self-maiming were blinding an eye with rat poison and cutting off a finger of the right hand, so as to be unable to fire a rifle. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Beyond building a functioning, industrial economy, Muhammad Ali also made an effort to train a professional military and bureaucracy. He sent promising citizens to Europe to study. Again the driving force behind the effort was to build a European-style army. Students were sent to study European languages, primarily French, so they could in turn translate military manuals into Arabic. He then used both educated Egyptians and imported European experts to establish schools and hospitals in Egypt. The European education also provided talented Egyptians with a means of social mobility. SONY V-0702BIAS1-US laptop keyboard

A byproduct of Muhammad Ali’s training program was the establishment of a professional bureaucracy. Establishing an efficient central bureaucracy was an essential prerequisite for the success of Muhammad Ali’s other reforms. In the process of destroying the Mamluks, the Wāli had to fill the governmental roles that the Mamluks had previously filled. In doing so, Muhammad Ali kept all central authority for himself. HP Mini 210-1199DX laptop keyboard

He partitioned Egypt into ten provinces responsible for collecting taxes and maintaining order.[21] Muhammad Ali installed his sons in most key positions; however, his reforms did offer Egyptians opportunities beyond agriculture and industry. HP Pavilion dv6-2143ca laptop keyboard

In the 1820s, Muhammad Ali sent the first educational "mission" of Egyptian students to Europe. This contact resulted in literature that is considered the dawn of the Arabic literary renaissance, known as the Nahda. SONY VAIO VGN-N350N laptop keyboard

To support the modernization of industry and the military, Muhammad Ali set up a number of schools in various fields where French texts were studied. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi supervised translations from French to Arabic on topics ranging from sociology and history to military technology, and these translations have been considered the second great translation movement, after the first from Greek into Arabic. TOSHIBA Satellite L550-ST5701 laptop keyboard

In 1835, his government founded the first indigenous press in the Arab World, the Bulaq press. The Bulaq press published the official gazette of Muhammad Ali's government.  HP Mini 110-3135dx Laptop Keyboard

Among his personal interests was the accumulation and breeding of Arabian horses. In horses obtained as taxes and tribute, Muhammad Ali recognized the unique characteristics and careful attention to bloodlines of the horses bred by the Bedouin, particularly by the Anazeh in Syria and those bred in the Nejd. While his immediate successor had minimal interest in the horse breeding program, his grandson, who became Abbas I shared this interest and further built upon his work. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Though Muhammad Ali’s chief aim was to establish a European-style military, and carve out a personal empire, he waged war initially on behalf of the Ottoman Sultan, Mahmud II, in Arabia and Greece, although he later came into open conflict with the Ottoman Empire. IBM Thinkpad R61i Laptop Keyboard

His first military campaign was an expedition into the Arabian Peninsula. The holy cities of Mecca, and Medina had been captured by the House of Saud, who had recently embraced a literalist Hanbali interpretation of Islam. Armed with their newfound religious zeal, the Saudis began conquering parts of Arabia. This Ottoman–Saudi War culminated in the capture of the Hejaz region by the Ottoman Empire in 1803. HP Pavilion dm3-1040EV Laptop Keyboard

With the main Ottoman army tied up in Europe, Mahmud II turned to Muhammad Ali to recapture the Arabian territories. Muhammad Ali in turn appointed his son, Tusun, to lead a military expedition in 1811. The campaign was initially turned back in Arabia; however, a second attack was launched in 1812 that succeeded in recapturing Hejaz.[22] HP G56-118CA Laptop Keyboard

While the campaign was successful, the power of the Saudis was not broken. They continued to harass Ottoman and Egyptian forces from the central Nejd region of the Peninsula. Consequently, Muhammad Ali dispatched another of his sons, Ibrahim, at the head of another army to finally rout the Saudis. After a two-year campaign, the Saudis were crushed and most of the Saudi family was captured. The family leader, Abdullah ibn Saud, was sent to Istanbul, and executed.[23] DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

Muhammad Ali next turned his attention to military campaigns independent of the Porte, beginning with the Sudan which he viewed as a valuable addition resource of territory, gold, and slaves. The Sudan at the time had no real central authority and used primitive weaponry in its tribal infighting. In 1820 Muhammad Ali dispatched an army of 5,000 troops commanded by his third son, Ismail and Abidin Bey, SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

south into Sudan with the intent of conquering the territory and subjugating it to his authority.[24] Ali's troops made headway into Sudan in 1821, but met with fierce resistance by the Shaigiya. Ultimately, the superiority of the Mamuluke/Turkish troops and firearms ensured the deafeat of the Shaigiya and the subsequent conquest of the Sudan. Ali now had an outpost from which he could expand to the source of the Nile in Ethiopia, and Uganda. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

His administration captured slaves from the Nuba Mountains, and west and south Sudan, all incorporated into a foot regiment known as the Gihadiya which were composed of the recently defeated Shaigiya who now took service under the invaders in exchange for keeping their domains.(pronounced Jihadiya in non-Egyptian Arabic).  DELL 9J.N6782.A01 Laptop Keyboard

Ali's reign in Sudan, and that of his immediate successors, is remembered in Sudan as brutal and heavy-handed, contributing to the popular independence struggle of the self-proclaimed Mahdi, Muhammad Ahmad, in 1881. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

While Muhammad Ali was expanding his authority into Africa, the Ottoman Empire was being challenged by ethnic rebellions in its European territories. The rebellion in the Greek provinces of the Ottoman Empire began in 1821. The Ottoman army proved ineffectual in its attempts to put down the revolt as ethnic violence spread as far as Constantinople. With his own army proving ineffective, Sultan Mahmud II offered Muhammad Ali the island of Crete in exchange for his support in putting down the revolt. HP Pavilion dv6-2155tx Laptop Keyboard

Muhammed Ali sent 16,000 soldiers, 100 transports, and 63 escort vessels under command of his son, Ibrahim Pasha.[25]Britain, France, and Russia intervened to protect the Greeks. On 20 October 1827 at the Navarino, while under the command of Muharram Bey, the Ottoman representative, the entire Egyptian navy was sunk by the European Allied fleet, under the command of Admiral Edward Codrington (1770–1851). DELL XPS M1530 Laptop Keyboard

If the Porte was not in the least prepared for this confrontation, Muhammad Ali was even less prepared for the loss of his highly competent, expensively assembled and maintained navy. With its fleet essentially destroyed, Egypt had no way to support its forces in Greece and was forced to withdraw. Ultimately the campaign cost Muhammad Ali his navy and yielded no tangible gains. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

In compensation for this loss, Muhammad Ali asked the Porte for the territory of Syria. The Ottomans were indifferent to the request; the Sultan himself asked blandly what would happen if Syria was given over and Muhammad Ali later deposed.[26] But Muhammad Ali was no longer willing to tolerate Ottoman indifference. To compensate for his and Egypt's losses, the wheels for the conquest of Syria were set in motion. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Like other rulers of Egypt before him, Ali desired to control Bilad al-Sham (the Levant), both for its strategic value and for its rich natural resources; nor was this a sudden, vindictive decision on the part of the Wāli since he had harbored this goal since his early years as Egypt's unofficial ruler. For not only had Syria abundant natural resources, HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

it also had a thriving international trading community with well-developed markets throughout the Levant; in addition, it would be acaptive market for the goods now being produced in Egypt. Yet perhaps most of all, Syria was desirable as a buffer state between Egypt and the Ottoman Sultan. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

A new fleet was built, a new army was raised and on 31 October 1831, under Ibrahim Pasha, the Egyptian invasion of Syria initiated the First Turko-Egyptian War. For the sake of appearance on the world stage, a pretext for the invasion was vital. Ultimately, the excuse for the expedition was a quarrel with Abdullah Pasha of Acre. The Wāli alleged that 6,000 fellahin had fled to Acre to escape the draft, corvée, and taxes, and he wanted them back.[27] (See also: 1834 Arab revolt in Palestine) TOSHIBA A000014900 Laptop Keyboard

The Egyptians overran most of Syria and its hinterland with ease. The strongest and only really significant resistance was put up at the port city of Acre. The Egyptian force eventually captured the city after a six-month siege, which lasted from 3 November 1831 to 27 May 1832. Unrest on the Egyptian home front increased dramatically during the course of the siege. Ali was forced to squeeze Egypt more and more in order to support his campaign and his people resented the increased burden. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

After the fall of Acre, the Egyptian army marched north into Anatolia. At the Battle of Konya (21 December 1832), Ibrahim Pasha soundly defeated the Ottoman army led by the sadr azam Grand Vizier Reshid Pasha. There were now no military obstacles between Ibrahim's forces and Constantinople itself. HP G62-229WM Laptop Keyboard

Through the course of the campaign, Muhammad Ali paid particular focus to the European powers. Fearing another intervention that would reverse all his gains, he proceeded slowly and cautiously. For example, TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Muhammad Ali continued the practice of using the sultan’s name at Friday prayers in the newly captured territories and continued to circulate Ottoman coins instead of issuing new ones bearing his likeness.[28] So long as Muhammad Ali’s march did not threaten to cause the complete collapse of the Ottoman state, the powers in Europe remained as passive observers.[29] HP Probook 4710S Laptop Keyboard

Despite this show, Muhammad Ali's goal was now to remove the current Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and replace him with the sultan's son, the infant Abdülmecid. This possibility so alarmed Mahmud II that he accepted Russia's offer of military aid resulting in the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi.[30] Russia's gain dismayed the British and French governments, resulting in their direct intervention. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

From this position, the European powers brokered a negotiated solution in May 1833 known as the Convention of Kutahya.[31] The terms of the peace were that Ali would withdraw his forces from Anatolia and receive the territories of Crete (then known as Candia) and the Hijaz as compensation, and Ibrahim Pasha would be appointed Wāli of Syria. The peace agreement fell short, however, of granting Muhammad Ali an independent kingdom for himself, leaving him wanting.[32] GATEWAY AEMA2TAU015 Laptop Keyboard

Sensing that Muhammad Ali was not content with his gains, the sultan attempted to preempt further action against the Ottoman Empire by offering him hereditary rule in Egypt and Arabia if he withdrew from Syria and Crete and renounced any desire for full independence.[33] Muhammad Ali rejected the offer, knowing that Mahmud could not force the Egyptian presence from Syria and Crete. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

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On 25 May 1838, Muhammad Ali informed Britain, and France that he intended to declare independence from the Ottoman Empire.[34] This action was contrary to the desire of the European powers to maintain the status quo within the Ottoman Empire.[33] With Muhammad Ali’s intentions clear, the European powers, HP Pavilion dv6-2106ea Laptop Keyboard

particularly Russia, attempted to moderate the situation and prevent conflict. Within the Empire, however, both sides were gearing for war. Ibrahim already had a sizable force in Syria. In Constantinople, the Ottoman commander, Hafiz Pasha, assured the Sultan that he could defeat the Egyptian army. HP G42-380LA Laptop Keyboard

When Mahmud II ordered his forces to advance on the Syrian frontier, Ibrahim attacked and destroyed them at the Battle of Nezib (24 June 1839) near Urfa. In an echo of the Battle of Konya, Constantinople was again left vulnerable to Ali's forces. A further blow to the Ottomans was the defection of their fleet to Muhammad Ali.[33] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

Mahmud II died almost immediately after the battle took place and was succeeded by sixteen-year-old Abdülmecid. At this point, Ali and Ibrahim began to argue about which course to follow; Ibrahim favored conquering the Ottoman capital and demanding the imperial seat while Muhammad Ali was inclined simply to demand numerous concessions of territory and political autonomy for himself and his family. HP Pavilion dv6-2160sv Laptop Keyboard

At this point, the European powers again intervened (see Oriental Crisis of 1840). On 15 July 1840, the British Government, which had colluded with Austria,Prussia, and Russia to sign the Convention of London, DELL NSK-DD101 Laptop Keyboard

offered Muhammad Ali hereditary rule of Egypt as part of the Ottoman Empire if he withdrew from the Syrian hinterland and the coastal regions of Mount Lebanon. Muhammad Ali hesitated, believing he had support from France. His hesitation proved costly; when French support failed to materialize, British naval forces moved against Syria, and Alexandria.[35] In the face of European military might, Muhammad Ali acquiesced. Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

After the British, and Austrian navies blockaded the Nile delta coastline, shelled Beirut (11 September 1840), and after Acre had capitulated (3 November 1840), Muhammad Ali agreed to the terms of the Convention on 27 November 1840. These terms included renouncing his claims over Crete, and Hejaz, downsizing his navy, and reducing his standing army to 18,000 men, provided that he and his descendants would enjoy hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan — an unheard-of status for an Ottoman viceroy.[36] HP Pavilion dv6-2053eo laptop keyboard

After 1843, fast on the heels of the Syrian débâcle, and the treaty of Balta Liman, which forced the Egyptian government to tear down its import barriers, and to give up its monopolies, Muhammad Ali's mind became increasingly clouded and tended towards paranoia. Whether it was genuine senility or the effects of the silver nitrate he had been given years before to treat an attack of dysentery remains a subject of debate.[37] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7340 laptop keyboard

In 1844 the tax receipts were in, and Sherif Pasha, the head of the diwan al-maliyya (financial ministry), was too fearful for his life to tell the Wāli the news that Egyptian debt now stood at 80 million francs (£2,400,000). Tax arrears came to 14,081,500 piastres[a 2] out of a total estimated tax of 75,227,500 pts.[38] Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

Timidly he approached Ibrahim Pasha with these facts, and together came up with a report and a plan. Anticipating his father's initial reaction, İbrahim arranged for Muhammad Ali's favorite daughter to break the news. It did little, if any, good. The resulting rage was far beyond what any had been expected, and it took six full days for a tenuous peace to take hold. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

A year later while Ibrahim, progressively crippled by rheumatic pains and tuberculosis (he was beginning to cough up blood), was sent to Italy to take the waters, Muhammad Ali, in 1846, traveled to Constantinople. There he approached the Sultan, expressed his fears, and made his peace, explaining: "[My son] Ibrahim is old and sick, HP Pavilion dv3-2157cl laptop keyboard

[my grandson] Abbas is indolent (happa), and then children will rule Egypt. How will they keep Egypt?"[39] After he secured hereditary rule for his family, the Wali ruled until 1848, when senility made further governance by him impossible. HP Pavilion ze2315us laptop keyboard

It soon came to the point where his son and heir, the mortally ailing Ibrahim, had no choice but to travel to Constantinople and request that the Sultan recognize him ruler of Egypt and Sudan even though his father was still alive. However, on the ship returning home, Ibrahim, gripped by fever and guilt, succumbed to seizures and hallucinations. He survived the journey but within six months was dead. He was succeeded by his nephew (Tosun's son) Abbas I. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV28 laptop keyboard