Afghanistan

Afghanistan

Afghanistan (i/æfˈɡænɨstæn/; Persian: افغانستان‎; Pashto: Afġānistān‎), officially the Islamic Republicof Afghanistan, is a landlocked sovereign state forming part of South Asia,[8] Central Asia,[9] TOSHIBA Satellite L675D-S7015 laptop keyboard

and to some extent Western Asia. It has a population of around 30 million inhabiting an area of approximately 647,500 km2(250,001 sq mi), making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world. It is bordered byPakistan in the south and the east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast. SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard

Afghanistan has been an ancient focal point of the Silk Road and human migration. Archaeologists have found evidence of human habitation from as far back as the Middle Paleolithic. Urban civilization may have begun in the area as early as 3,000 to 2,000 BCE.[10] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Sitting at an important geostrategic location that connects the Middle East culture with Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent,[11] the land has been home to various peoples through the ages[12] and witnessed many military campaigns, notably by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and in modern era Western forces. ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard [13]

The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan begins in 1709, when the Hotaki dynasty was established in Kandahar followed by Ahmad Shah Durrani's rise to power in 1747.[3][14][15]  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the "Great Game" between the British and Russian empires. Following the 1919 Anglo-Afghan War, King Amanullah began a European style modernization of the country but was stopped by the ultra-conservatives. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

During the Cold War, after the withdrawal of the British from neighboring India in 1947, the United States and the Soviet Union began spreading influences in Afghanistan,[16] which led to a bloody war between the US-backed mujahideen forces and the Soviet-backed Afghan government in which over a million Afghans lost their lives.[17][18] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

This was followed by the 1990s civil war, the rise and fall of the extremist Taliban government and the 2001–present war.[19] In December 2001, theUnited Nations Security Council authorized the creation of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to help maintain security in Afghanistan and assist the Karzai administration.[20] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Three decades of war made Afghanistan one of the world's most dangerous countries,[21] including the largest producer of refugees and asylum seekers. While the international community is rebuilding war-torn Afghanistan,terrorist groups such as the Haqqani Network and Hezbi Islami[22] SONY VAIO VGN-NR21E/S Laptop Keyboard

are actively involved in a nationwideTaliban-led insurgency,[23] which includes hundreds of assassinations and suicide attacks.[24] According to theUnited Nations, the insurgents were responsible for 80% of civilian casualties in 2011 and 2012.

The name Afghānistān (Persian: افغانستان‎, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

 [avɣɒnestɒn])[27] means "Land of the Afghans",[28] which originates from the ethnonym "Afghan". Historically, the name "Afghan" mainly designated the Pashtun people, the largest ethnic group of Afghanistan.[29] This name is mentioned in the form of Abgan in the 3rd century CE by the Sassanians[30] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

and asAvagana (Afghana) in the 6th century CE by Indian astronomer Varahamihira.[29] A people called the Afghans are mentioned several times in a 10th century geography book, Hudud al-'alam, particularly where a reference is made to a village: "Saul, a pleasant village on a mountain. In it live Afghans."[31] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Al-Biruni referred to them in the 11th century as various tribes living on the western frontier mountains of the Indus River, which would be the Sulaiman Mountains.[32] Ibn Battuta, a famous Moroccan scholar visiting the region in 1333, writes:

"We travelled on to Kabul, HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

formerly a vast town, the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans. They hold mountains and defiles and possess considerable strength, and are mostly highwaymen. Their principle mountain is called Kuh Sulayman."[33] DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

One prominent 16th-century Persian scholar explains extensively about the Afghans. For example, he writes:

"The men of Kábul and Khilj also went home; and whenever they were questioned about the Musulmáns of the Kohistán (the mountains), and how matters stood there, they said, "Don't call it Kohistán, HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

but Afghánistán; for there is nothing there but Afgháns and disturbances." Thus it is clear that for this reason the people of the country call their home in their own languageAfghánistán, and themselves Afgháns."[34] HP Mini 210-1070NR Laptop Keyboard

—Firishta, 1560–1620 AD

It is widely accepted that the terms "Pashtun" and Afghan are synonyms.[29] In the writings of the 17th-century Pashto poet Khushal Khan Khattak it is mentioned:

"Pull out your sword and slay any one, that says Pashtun and Afghan are not one! Arabs know this and so do Romans: Afghans are Pashtuns, Pashtuns are Afghans!"[35] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

The last part of the name, -stān is a Persian suffix for "place". The name "Afghanistan" is described by the 16th century Mughal Emperor Babur in his memoirs as well as by the later Persian scholar Firishta and Babur's descendants, referring to the traditional ethnic Pashtun territories between the Hindu Kush mountains and the Indus River.[36] In the early 19th century, Compaq Presario CQ57-311 Laptop Keyboard

 Afghan politicians decided to adopt the name Afghanistan for the entire Afghan Empire after its English translation had already appeared in various treaties with Qajarid Persia and British India.[37] In 1857, in his review of J.W. Kaye's The Afghan War, Friedrich Engels describes "Afghanistan" as: DELL V119525BS1 Laptop Keyboard

"an extensive country of Asia ... between Persia and the Indies, and in the other direction between the Hindu Kush and the Indian Ocean. It formerly included the Persian provinces of Khorassan and Kohistan, together with Herat, Beluchistan, Cashmere, and Sinde, and a considerable part of thePunjab ... Its principal cities are Kabul, the capital, Ghuznee, Peshawer, and Kandahar."[38] Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

The Afghan kingdom was sometimes referred to as the Kingdom of Kabul, as mentioned by the British statesman and historian Mountstuart Elphinstone.[39]Afghanistan was officially recognized as a sovereign state by the international community after the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 was signed.[40][41] HP G72-a10SV Laptop Keyboard

Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs, large parts of the country are dry. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.[44] Aside from the usual rain falls, Afghanistan receives snow during winter in the Hindu Kush andPamir Mountains, and the melting snow in the spring season enters the rivers, lakes, and streams.[45][46] LENOVO IdeaPad S10 20015 Laptop Keyboard

 However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan. The state needs more than US$2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.[47] SONY VAIO VGN-FZ220E/B Laptop Keyboard

The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range, in and around the Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan, is in a geologically active area where earthquakes may occur almost every year.[48] They can be deadly and destructive sometimes, causinglandslides in some parts or avalanche during winter.[49] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

 The last strong earthquakes were in 1998, which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan.[50] This was followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which over 150 people of various regional countries were killed and over 1,000 injured. The 2010 earthquake left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured and more than 2,000 houses destroyed. LENOVO 25-011427 Laptop Keyboard

The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, lithium, uranium, rare earth elements, chromite, gold,zinc, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, marble, precious and semi-precious stones, natural gas, and petroleum among other things.[51][52] In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the US Geological Survey are worth between $900 bn and $3 trillion.[53][54][55] HP Mini 110-3105tu Laptop Keyboard

At 652,230 square kilometres (251,830 sq mi),[56] Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country,[57] slightly bigger than France and smaller than Burma, about the size of Texas in the United States. It borders Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far east. HP G62-371DX Laptop Keyboard

Excavations of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree and others suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world.[58][59] An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites.[60] DELL 1R28D Laptop Keyboard

The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and often fought. It has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, the Islamic Empire and the Sassanid Empire. HP Envy 17-2077ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Many kingdoms have also risen to power in what is now Afghanistan, such as the Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, Hephthalites,Kabul Shahis, Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Kartids, Timurids, Mughals, and finally the Hotaki and Durranidynasties that marked the political origins of the modern state. HP Envy 17-1190nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west and north. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard

Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic,Bronze, and Iron ages have been found in Afghanistan.[61] Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar in the south of the country) may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization.[59] HP Mini 110-3105tu laptop keyboard

After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians.[58] HP Pavilion DV3560ev laptop keyboard

These tribes later migrated further south to India, west to what is now Iran, and towards Europe via the area north of the Caspian.[62] The region as a whole was called Ariana.[58][63][64] COMPAQ Presario V3132TU laptop keyboard

The ancient religion of Zoroastrianism is believed by some to have originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 and 800 BCE, as its founder Zoroaster is thought to have lived and died inBalkh. TOSHIBA Satellite A15-SP1002 laptop keyboard

By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenid Persians overthrew the Medes and incorporated Afghanistan (Arachosia, Aria and Bactria) within its boundaries. Aninscription on the tombstone of King Darius I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.[68] SONY VAIO VGN-AR270 laptop keyboard

Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army arrived to the area of Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia a year earlier in the Battle of Gaugamela.[65] Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the area until 305 BCE when they gave much of it to the Indian Maurya Empire as part of an alliance treaty. HP G61-420CA laptop keyboard

"Alexander took these away from the Aryans and established settlements of his own, but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus(Chandragupta), upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange 500 elephants."[69]  FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

—Strabo, 64 BC – 24 AD

The Mauryans brought Buddhism from India and controlled the area south of the Hindu Kush until about 185 BCE when they were overthrown.[70] Their decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, leading to the Hellenistic reconquest of the region by the Greco-Bactrians. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

Much of it soon broke away from the Greco-Bactrians and became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks were defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

During the 1st century BCE, the Parthian Empire subjugated the region, but lost it to their Indo-Parthian vassals. In the mid to late 1st century CE the vastKushan Empire, centered in modern Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture. The Kushans were defeated by the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE. HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard

Although various rulers calling themselves Kushanshas (generally known as the Indo-Sassanids) continued to rule at least parts of the region, they were probably more or less subject to the Sassanids.[71] TOSHIBA Satellite L505D-S6948 Laptop Keyboard

The late Kushans were followed by the Kidarite Huns[72] who, in turn, were replaced by the short-lived but powerful Hephthalites, as rulers.[73] The Hephthalites were defeated by Khosrau I in CE 557, who re-established Sassanid power in Persia. However, in the 6th century CE, the successors to the Kushans and Hepthalites established a small dynasty in Kabulistan called Kabul Shahi. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Between the 4th and 19th centuries the northwestern area of modern Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name asKhorasan.[74][75] Two of the four capitals of Khorasan (Herat and Balkh[33]) are now located in Afghanistan, while the regions of Kandahar, Zabulistan, Ghazni, Kabulistan and Afghanistan formed the frontier between Khorasan and Hindustan. ACER Aspire 2023WLMi Laptop Keyboard

Arab Muslims brought the message of Islam to Herat and Zaranj in 642 AD and began spreading eastward, some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted.[77]The people of Afghanistan was multi-religious, which included Zoroastrians, SONY VAIO VGN-FZ21S Laptop Keyboard

Buddhists,worshippers of the sun, Hindus, Christians, Jews, and others.[78] The Zunbil and Kabul Shahi were defeated in 870 AD by the Saffarid Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the Samanids extended their Islamic influence into south of the Hindu Kush. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side in Kabul before the Ghaznavids rose to power. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

"Kábul has a castle celebrated for its strength, accessible only by one road. In it there areMusulmáns, and it has a town, in which are infidels from Hind."[79]

—Istahkrí, 921 ADCompaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Afghanistan became one of the main centers in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age.[80][58] By the 11th century SultanMahmud of Ghazni had finally Islamized all of the remaining non-Muslim areas, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

with the exception of the Kafiristan region. The Ghaznavids were replaced by the Ghurids who expanded and advanced the already powerful empire. In 1219 AD, Genghis Khan and hisMongol army overran the region. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khorasanian cities of Herat and Balkh as well asBamyan.[81] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

The destruction caused by the Mongols depopulated major cities and forced many of the locals to revert to an agrarian rural society.[82] Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in the northwest while the Khilji dynasty controlled the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush, until the invasion of Timur who established the Timurid dynasty in 1370.[83] During the Ghaznavid, Ghurid, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-SP4132 Laptop Keyboard

and Timurid eras, Afghanistan produced many fine Islamic architectural monuments as well as numerous scientific and literary works.

Babur, a descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan, arrived from Fergana and captured Kabul from the Arghun dynasty, and from there he began to seize control of the central and eastern territories of Afghanistan. HP 535689-001 Laptop Keyboard

He remained in Kabulistan until 1526 when he and his army invaded Delhi in India to replace the Afghan Lodi dynasty with the Mughal Empire. From the 16th century to the early 18th century, Afghanistan was part of three regional kingdoms: the Khanate of Bukhara in the north, the Shi'aSafavids in the west and the remaining larger area was ruled by the Mughal Empire. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Mir Wais Hotak, seen as Afghanistan's George Washington,[84] successfully rebelled against the Persian Safavids in 1709. He overthrew and killed Gurgin Khan, and made the Afghan region independent from Persia. By 1713, Mir Wais had decisively defeated two larger Persian armies, HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

one was led by Khusraw Khán (nephew of Gurgin) and the other by Rustam Khán. The armies were sent by Sultan Husayn, the Shah in Isfahan (now Iran), to re-take control of the Kandahar region.[85] Mir Wais died of a natural cause in 1715 and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz, who was killed by Mir Wais' son Mahmud as a national traitor. In 1722, HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 Laptop Keyboard

Mahmud led an Afghan army to the Persian capital of Isfahan, sacked the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and proclaimed himself King of Persia.[85] The Persians were disloyal to the Afghan rulers, and after the massacre of thousands of religious scholars, nobles, and members of the Safavid family, the Hotaki dynasty was ousted from Persia after the 1729 Battle of Damghan.[86] ASUS A8M Laptop Keyboard

In 1738, Nader Shah and his Afsharid forces captured Kandahar from Shah Hussain Hotaki, at which point the incarcerated 16 year old Ahmad Shah Durrani was freed and made the commander of Nader Shah's four thousand Abdali Afghans.[87] From Kandahar they set out to conquer India, ASUS A8M Laptop Keyboard

passing through Ghazni, Kabul, Peshawar, and Lahore, and ultimately plundering Delhi after the Battle of Karnal. Nader Shah and his army abandoned Delhi but took with them huge treasure, which included the Koh-i-Noor and Darya-ye Noordiamonds.[88] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ220 Laptop Keyboard

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After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, the Afghans chose Ahmad Shah Durrani as their head of state. Regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan,[89][90][91] Durrani and his Afghan army conquered the entire present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, along with Delhi in India.[38] He defeated the Indian Maratha Empire, one of his biggest victories was the1761 Battle of Panipat. SONY VAIO VGN-CS160J/W laptop keyboard

In October 1772, Ahmad Shah Durrani died of a natural cause and was buried at a site now adjacent to theShrine of the Cloak in Kandahar. He was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah, who transferred the capital of Afghanistan from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776. After Timur Shah's death in 1793, the Durrani throne was passed down to his son Zaman Shah followed by Mahmud Shah, Shuja Shah and others. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP0C laptop keyboard

The Afghan Empire was under threat in the early 19th century by the Persians in the west and the Sikhs in the east. The western provinces of Khorasan and Kohistan were taken by the Persians in 1800. Fateh Khan, leader of the Barakzai tribe, had installed 21 of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. TOSHIBA Satellite M105-S3004 laptop keyboard

After his death, they rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until Dost Mohammad Khan declared himself emir in 1826.[92] The Punjab region was lost to Ranjit Singh, who invaded Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and in 1834 captured the city of Peshawar. ASUS X53S laptop keyboard

 [93][94] By this time the British were advancing from the east and the First Anglo-Afghan War, one of the first major conflicts during the Great Game, was initiated.[95]

Following the 1842 Massacre of Elphinstone's Army and victory of Afghan forces, led by Akbar Khan, the British establisheddiplomatic relations with the Afghan government but withdrew all forces from the country. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

They returned during the Second Anglo-Afghan War in the late 1870s for about two-year military operations, which was to defeat Ayub Khan and assist Abdur Rahman Khanestablish authority. The United Kingdom began to exercise a great deal of influence after this and even controlled the state'sforeign policy. Compaq Presario CQ71-410EP laptop keyboard

In 1893, Mortimer Durand made Amir Abdur Rahman Khan sign a controversial agreement in which the ethnic Pashtunand Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line. This was a standard divide and rule policy of the British and would lead to strained relations, especially with the later new state of Pakistan. SAMSUNG N150 laptop keyboard

After the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919, KingAmanullah Khan declared Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community and, following a 1927–28 tour of Europe and Turkey, introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. SONY VAIO VGN-FS485B laptop keyboard

A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 constitution, which made elementary education compulsory. The institution of slavery was abolished in 1923.[96] SONY VAIO VGN-FS215B laptop keyboard

Some of the reforms that were actually put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional burqafor women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah Khan was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul fell to rebel forces led by Habibullah Kalakani. Compaq Presario CQ62-215DX laptop keyboard

Prince Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in November 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favor of a more gradual approach to modernisation but was assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Khaliq, a Hazara school student.[97] SONY Vaio VGN-AW190 laptop keyboard

Mohammed Zahir Shah, Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. Until 1946 Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard

Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1973 by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud Khan sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union and a more distant one towards Pakistan. SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in World War II, nor aligned with either power bloc in the Cold War. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports and other vital infrastructure. In 1973, while King Zahir Shah was on an official overseas visit, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup and became the first President of Afghanistan. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

In April 1978, the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the Saur Revolution. Within months, opponents of the communist government launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government forces countrywide. TOSHIBA P205-S6267 Laptop KeyboardThe Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government.[98] HP Mini 110-3098nr Laptop Keyboard

Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA — the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham — resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. By mid-1979, the United States had started a covert program to assist the mujahideen.[99] HP Probook 4515S Laptop Keyboard

In September 1979, Khalqist President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member Hafizullah Amin, who assumed the presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces in December 1979. Lenovo 0A62039 Laptop Keyboard

A Soviet-organized government, led by Parcham's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions, filled the vacuum. Soviet troops were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the fighting in Afghanistan. As a result, however, the Soviets were now directly involved in what had been a domestic war in Afghanistan.[100] Lenovo 04W2236 Laptop Keyboard

At the time some believed the Soviets were attempting to expand their borders southward in order to gain a foothold in theMiddle East. The Soviet Union had long lacked a warm water port, and their movement south seemed to position them for further expansion toward Pakistan in the East, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboar

and Iran to the West. American politicians, Republicans and Democrats alike, feared the Soviets were positioning themselves for a takeover of Middle Eastern oil. Others believed that the Soviet Union was afraid Iran's Islamic Revolution and Afghanistan's Islamization would spread to the millions of Muslims in the USSR.  Lenovo 0A62075 Laptop Keyboard

The PDPA prohibited usury, made statements on women's rights by declaring equality of the sexes[101] and introducing women to political life.[101]

After the invasion, President Jimmy Carter announced what became known as the Carter Doctrine: that the U.S. DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

would not allow any other outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf. He terminated the Soviet Wheat Deal in January 1980, which was intended to establish trade with USSR and lessen Cold War tensions. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

The grain exports had been beneficial to people employed in agriculture, and the Carter embargo marked the beginning of hardship for American farmers. That same year, Carter also made two of the most unpopular decisions of his entire Presidency: prohibiting American athletes from participating in the1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

and reinstating registration for the draft for young males. Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. In addition, generous U.S. contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played a major part in efforts to assist Afghan refugees. APPLE A1278 Laptop Keyboard

The Reagan administration increased arming and funding of the mujahideen as part of the Reagan Doctrine, thanks in large part to the efforts of Charlie Wilson and CIA officer Gust Avrakotos. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Early reports estimated $6–20 billion[102] but more recent reports suggest that up to $40 billion were provided by the U.S. and Saudi Arabia to Pakistan.[103][104] This was in the forms of cash and weapons, which included over two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

The 10-year Soviet war resulted in the deaths of over 1 million Afghans, mostly civilians.[17][18][105] About 6 million fled toPakistan and Iran, and from there tens of thousands began emigrating to the European Union, United States, Australia and other parts of the world.[106] DELL Vostro 3500 Laptop Keyboard

Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties, the Soviets withdrew in 1989 but continued to support Afghan President Mohammad Najibullahuntil 1992.[107] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

After the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992, the Afghan political parties agreed on a peace and power-sharing agreement (the Peshawar Accords). The accords created the Islamic State of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government for a transitional period to be followed by general elections. According toHuman Rights Watch: HP Pavilion dv6-3125sc Laptop Keyboard

The sovereignty of Afghanistan was vested formally in the Islamic State of Afghanistan, an entity created in April 1992, after the fall of theSoviet-backed Najibullah government ... With the exception of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami, all of the parties ... were ostensibly unified under this government in April 1992 ... SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Hekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami, for its part, refused to recognize the government for most of the period discussed in this report and launched attacks against government forces and Kabul generally ... Shells and rockets fell everywhere.[108] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

Gulbuddin Hekmatyar received operational, financial and military support from Pakistan.[109] Afghanistan expert Amin Saikal concludes in Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival: TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

Pakistan was keen to gear up for a breakthrough in Central Asia ... Islamabad could not possibly expect the new Islamic government leaders ... to subordinate their own nationalist objectives in order to help Pakistan realize its regional ambitions ... Had it not been for the ISI's logistic support and supply of a large number of rockets, Hekmatyar's forces would not have been able to target and destroy half of Kabul.[110] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard

In addition, Saudi Arabia and Iran – as competitors for regional hegemony – supported Afghan militias hostile towards each other.[110] According to Human Rights Watch, Iran was backing the Shia Hazara Hezb-i Wahdat forces of Abdul Ali Mazari to "maximize Wahdat's military power and influence".[108][110][111] HP Mini 110-3501tu Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabia supported the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction.[108][110] A publication by the George Washington University suggests "outside forces saw instability in Afghanistan as an opportunity to press their own security and political agendas".[112] Conflict between the two militias soon escalated into a full-scale war. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard

Due to the sudden initiation of the war, working government departments, police units or a system of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form. Atrocities were committed by individuals of the different armed factions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaos as described in reports by Human Rights Watch and the Afghanistan Justice Project.[108][113] ACER Aspire 2920-1A2G16Mi laptop keyboard

Because of the chaos, some leaders increasingly had only nominal control over their (sub-)commanders.[114] For civilians there was little security from murder, rape and extortion.[114] ACER Aspire 1410-2920 laptop keyboard

An estimated 25,000 people died during the most intense period of bombardment by Hekmatyar's Hezb-i Islami and the Junbish-i Milli forces of Abdul Rashid Dostum, who had created an alliance with Hekmatyar in 1994.[113] Half a million people fled Afghanistan.[114] Human Rights Watch writes: SONY VAIO VGN-AR670 laptop keyboard

Rare ceasefires, usually negotiated by representatives of Ahmad Shah Massoud, Sibghatullah Mojaddedi or Burhanuddin Rabbani [the interim government], or officials from the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), commonly collapsed within days.[108] SONY VGN-FE21S laptop keyboard

Southern and eastern Afghanistan was under the control of local commanders such as Gul Agha Sherzai and others. In 1994, the Taliban (a movement originating from Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a political-religious force.[115]  Packard Bell Easynote LM85 laptop keyboard

When the Taliban took control of the city in 1994, they forced the surrender of dozens of local Pashtun leaders.[114] In 1994, the Taliban took power in several provinces in southern and central Afghanistan. HP G61-430EF laptop keyboard

In late 1994, most of the militia factions (Hezb-i Islami, Junbish-i Milli and Hezb-i Wahdat) which had been fighting in the battle for control of Kabul were defeated militarily by forces of the Islamic State's Minister of Defense Ahmad Shah Massoud. Bombardment of the capital came to a halt.[113][116][117] HP Pavilion dv6-2118tx laptop keyboard

The Islamic State government took steps to restore law and order.[118] Courts started to work again.[118] Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to join the process but they refused as they did not believe in a democratic system.[119] HP Mini 110-3501tu laptop keyboard

The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995 but were defeated by forces of the Islamic State government under Ahmad Shah Massoud.[116][120] Amnesty International, referring to the Taliban offensive, wrote in a 1995 report: "This is the first time in several months that Kabul civilians have become the targets of rocket attacks and shelling aimed at residential areas in the city."[116] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

The Taliban's early victories in 1994 were followed by a series of defeats that resulted in heavy losses which led analysts to believe the Taliban movement had run its course.[114] But Pakistan provided increased support to the Taliban.[110][121] Many analysts like Amin Saikal describe the Taliban as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests.[110] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

 On 26 September 1996, as the Taliban with military support by Pakistan and financial support by Saudi Arabia prepared for another major offensive, Massoud ordered a full retreat from Kabul.[122] The Taliban seized Kabul on 27 September 1996, and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. They imposed on the parts of Afghanistan under their control their political and judicial interpretation of Islam issuing edicts especially targeting women.[123] HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard

According to Physicians for Human Rights (PHR), "no other regime in the world has methodically and violently forced half of its population into virtual house arrest, prohibiting them on pain of physical punishment."[123] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban on 27 September 1996, Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum, two former enemies, created the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban that were preparing offensives against the remaining areas under the control of Massoud and those under the control of Dostum.[124] SONY 550102H01-035-G Laptop Keyboard

The United Front included beside the dominantly Tajik forces of Massoud and the Uzbek forces of Dostum, Hazara factions under the command of leaders such asHaji Mohammad Mohaqiq and Pashtun forces under the leadership of commanders such as Abdul Haq or Haji Abdul Qadir. The Taliban defeated Dostum's Junbish forces militarily by seizing Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998. Dostum subsequently went into exile. SONY Vaio PCG-K33 Laptop Keyboard

According to a 55-page report by the United Nations, the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians.[125][126] SONY 147977821 Laptop Keyboard

UN officials stated that there had been "15 massacres" between 1996 and 2001 and that "[t]hese have been highly systematic and they all lead back to the [Taliban] Ministry of Defense or to Mullah Omar himself."[125][126] The Taliban especially targeted people of Shia religious or Hazara ethnic background.[125][126]  HP 646568-001 Laptop Keyboard

Upon taking Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998, 4,000–6,000 civilians were killed by the Taliban and many more reportedtortured.[127][128] The documents also reveal the role of Arab and Pakistani support troops in these killings.[125][126] HP G62-140US Laptop Keyboard

Bin Laden's so-called 055 Brigade was responsible for mass-killings of Afghan civilians.[129] The report by the UN quotes "eyewitnesses in many villages describing Arab fighters carrying long knives used for slitting throats and skinning people".[125][126] SONY VAIO VGN-AR170 Laptop Keyboard

President Pervez Musharraf – then as Chief of Army Staff – was responsible for sending thousands of Pakistanis to fight alongside the Taliban and bin Laden against the forces of Massoud.[119][121][130][131] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

According to Pakistani Afghanistan expertAhmed Rashid, "between 1994 and 1999, an estimated 80,000 to 100,000 Pakistanis trained and fought in Afghanistan" on the side of the Taliban.[132] In 2001 alone, there were believed to be 28,000 Pakistani nationals, many either from the Frontier Corps or army, fighting inside Afghanistan.[119] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

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An estimated 8,000 Pakistani militants were recruited in madrassas filling the ranks of the estimated 25,000 regular Taliban force.[129] A 1998 document by the U.S. State Department confirms that "20–40 % of [regular] Taliban soldiers are Pakistani."[121] The document further stated that the parents of those Pakistani nationals "know nothing regarding their child's military involvement with the Taliban until their bodies are brought back to Pakistan."[121] Lenovo 45N2141 laptop keyboard

From 1996 to 2001 the al-Qaeda terrorist network of Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri became a state within Afghanistan.[133] Bin Laden sent Arab recruits to join the fight against the United Front.[133][134] 3,000 fighters of the regular Taliban army were Arab and Central Asian militants.[129] In total, of roughly 45,000 Pakistani, Taliban and al-Qaeda soldiers fighting against the forces of Massoud in mid-2001, only 14,000 were Afghans.[119][129] SONY 148084811 laptop keyboard

Ahmad Shah Massoud remained the only leader of the United Front in Afghanistan. In the areas under his control Massoud set up democratic institutions and signed the Women's Rights Declaration.[135] Human Rights Watch cites no human rights crimes for the forces under direct control of Massoud for the period from October 1996 until the assassination of Massoud in September 2001.[136] Compaq Presario CQ62-203AX laptop keyboard

As a consequence many civilians fled to the area of Ahmad Shah Massoud.[130][137] In total, estimates range up to one million people fleeing the Taliban.[138] National Geographic concluded in its documentary "Inside the Taliban": "The only thing standing in the way of future Taliban massacres is Ahmad Shah Massoud."[130] HP Pavilion DV6-1210sa laptop keyboard

In early 2001 Massoud addressed the European Parliament in Brussels asking the international community to provide humanitarian help to the people of Afghanistan.[138] He stated that the Taliban and al-Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong perception of Islam" and that without the support of Pakistan and bin Laden the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year.[139] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-JS03UK laptop keyboard

On this visit to Europe he also warned that his intelligence had gathered information about a large-scale attack on U.S. soil being imminent.[140]

On 9 September 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud was assassinated by two Arab suicide attackers inside Afghanistan and two days later about 3,000 people were killed in the September 11 attacks in the United States. HP Pavilion dv4-1131tx laptop keyboard

The US government identified Osama bin Laden, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and the Al-Qaeda organization based in and allied to the Taliban's Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as the perpetrators of the attacks. From 1990 until this date over 400,000 Afghan civilians had already died in the wars in Afghanistan.[141] SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard

The Taliban refused to hand over bin Laden to US authorities and to disband al-Qaeda bases in Afghanistan.[142] Bin Laden later claimed sole responsibility for the September 11 attacks and specifically denied any prior knowledge of them by the Taliban or the Afghan people.[143] Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

 In October 2001, Operation Enduring Freedom was launched as a new phase of the war in Afghanistan in which teams of American and British special forces worked with ground forces of the United Front (Northern Alliance) to remove the Taliban from power and dispel Al-Qaeda.[144] ACER Aspire 4315 laptop keyboard

At the same time the US-led forces were bombing Taliban and al-Qaida targets everywhere inside Afghanistan with cruise missiles. These actions led to the fall of Mazar-i-Sharif in the north followed by all the other cities, as the Taliban and al-Qaida fled over the porous Durand Line border into Pakistan. Acer eMachines G730ZG laptop keyboard

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In December 2001, after the Taliban government was toppled and the new Afghan government under Hamid Karzai was formed, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai administration and provide basic security to the Afghan people.[145][146] SAMSUNG Q330-JS02 Laptop Keyboard

While the Taliban began regrouping inside Pakistan, more coalition troops entered the escalating US-led war. Meanwhile, the rebuilding of war-torn Afghanistan kicked off in 2002.[147][148] ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard

The Afghan nation was able to build democratic structures over the years, and some progress was made in key areas such as governance, economy, health, education, transport, and agriculture. NATO is training the Afghan armed forces as well its national police. ISAF and Afghan troopsled many offensives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began to form in many parts of the country complete with their own version of mediation court.[149] After U.S. President Barack Obama announced the deployment of another 30,000 soldiers in 2010 for a period of two years, Der Spiegel published images of the US soldiers who killed unarmed Afghan civilians.[150] DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard

At the 2010 International Conference on Afghanistan in London, Afghan President Hamid Karzai said he intends to reach out to the Taliban leadership (including Mullah Omar, Sirajuddin Haqqani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar). Supported by NATO, Karzai called on the group's leadership to take part in a loya jirga meeting to initiate peace talks. SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

These steps have resulted in an intensification of bombings, assassinations and ambushes.[151] Some Afghan groups (including the former intelligence chief Amrullah Saleh and opposition leader Dr. Abdullah Abdullah) believe that Karzai plans to appease the insurgents' senior leadership at the cost of the democratic constitution, the democratic process and progress in the field of human rights especially women's rights.[152] Dr. Abdullah stated:  HP Probook 4515S Laptop Keyboard

I should say that Taliban are not fighting to be accommodated. They are fighting to bring the state down. So it's a futile exercise, and it's just misleading. ... There are groups that will fight to the death. Whether we like to talk to them or we don't like to talk to them, they will continue to fight. So, for them, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

I don't think that we have a way forward with talks or negotiations or contacts or anything as such. Then we have to be prepared to tackle and deal with them militarily. In terms of the Taliban on the ground, there are lots of possibilities and opportunities that with the help of the people in different parts of the country, we can attract them to the peace process; HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

provided, we create a favorable environment on this side of the line. At the moment, the people are leaving support for the government because of corruption. So that expectation is also not realistic at this stage.[153] TOSHIBA Satellite L775-S7245 Laptop Keyboard

Over five million Afghan refugees were repatriated in the last decade, including many who were forcefully deported fromNATO countries.[154][155] This large return of Afghans may have helped the nation's economy but the country still remains one of the poorest in the world due to the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoing government corruption and the Taliban insurgency.[156][157] HP 633183-001 Laptop Keyboard

 According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban and other militants were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009,[158] 75% in 2010,[25] 80% in 2011, 80% in 2012.[159] In 2011 a record 3,021 civilians were killed in the ongoing insurgency, the fifth successive annual rise.[160] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

After the May 2011 death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan, many prominent Afghan figures began being assassinated, including Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmed Wali Karzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi, Burhanuddin Rabbani and others. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

This led to the United States warning Pakistan of a possible military action against the Haqqanis in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.[162] The U.S. blamed Pakistan's government, mainly Pakistan Army and its ISI spy network as the masterminds behind all of this.[23] SONY VAIO VGN-NW250D/W Laptop Keyboard

In choosing to use violent extremism as an instrument of policy, the government of Pakistan, and most especially the Pakistani army and ISI, jeopardizes not only the prospect of our strategic partnership but Pakistan's opportunity to be a respected nation with legitimate regional influence. SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard

They may believe that by using these proxies, they are hedging their bets or redressing what they feel is an imbalance in regional power. But in reality, they have already lost that bet.[163] Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

—Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, Cameron Munter, told Radio Pakistan that "The attack that took place in Kabul a few days ago, that was the work of the Haqqani Network. There is evidence linking the Haqqani Network to the Pakistan government. This is something that must stop."[164] HP Pavilion dv6-2125ss laptop keyboard

Other top U.S. officials such asHillary Clinton and Leon Panetta made similar statements.[165][23] On 16 October 2011, "Operation Knife Edge" was launched by NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani Network in south-eastern Afghanistan. Afghan Defense Minister, Abdul Rahim Wardak, explained that the operation will "help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in areas along the troubled frontier".[166] HP Pavilion dv6-2025ss laptop keyboard

In anticipation of the 2014 NATO withdrawal and a subsequent expected push to regain power by the Taliban, the anti-Taliban United Front (Northern Alliance) groups have started to regroup under the umbrella of the National Coalition of Afghanistan (political arm) and the National Front of Afghanistan (military arm).[167][168] Lenovo 04W2236 laptop keyboard

Afghanistan is an Islamic republic consisting of three branches, executive, legislative and judicial. The nation is currently led by Hamid Karzai as the President and leader since late 2001. The National Assembly is the legislature, a bicameral body having two chambers, the House of the People and the House of Elders.  Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

The Supreme Court is led by Chief Justice Abdul Salam Azimi, a former university professor who had been a legal advisor to the president.[169] The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous one, which was dominated by fundamentalist religious figures such as Chief Justice Faisal Ahmad Shinwari who issued several controversial rulings, including seeking to place a limit on the rights of women. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

According to Transparency International's corruption perceptions index 2010 results, Afghanistan was ranked as the third most-corrupt country in the world.[170] A January 2010 report published by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimerevealed that bribery consumes an amount equal to 23% of the GDP of the nation.[171] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51 1829 laptop keyboard

A number of government ministries are believed to be rife with corruption, and while President Karzai vowed to tackle the problem in late 2009 by stating that "individuals who are involved in corruption will have no place in the government",[172] top government officials were stealing and misusing hundreds of millions of dollars through the Kabul Bank. HP 365485-001 laptop keyboard

Although the nation's institutions are newly formed and steps have been taken to arrest some,[173] the United States warned that aid to Afghanistan would be reduced to very little if the corruption is not stopped.[174] HP COMPAQ NC6320 laptop keyboard

The 2004 Afghan presidential election was relatively peaceful, in which Hamid Karzai won in the first round with 55.4% of the votes. However, the 2009 presidential election was characterized by lack of security, HP COMPAQ NC6130 laptop keyboard

low voter turnout and widespread electoral fraud.[175][176] The vote, along with elections for 420 provincial council seats, took place in August 2009, but remained unresolved during a lengthy period of vote counting and fraud investigation.[177] Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

Two months later, under international pressure, a second round run-off vote between Karzai and remaining challenger Abdullahwas announced, but a few days later Abdullah announced that he is not participating in the 7 November run-off because his demands for changes in the electoral commission had not been met. The next day, officials of the election commission cancelled the run-off and declared Hamid Karzai as President for another 5-year term.[176] SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

In the 2005 parliamentary election, among the elected officials were former mujahideen, Islamic fundamentalists, warlords, communists, reformists, and several Taliban associates.[178] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

In the same period, Afghanistan reached to the 30th nation in terms of female representation in parliament.[179] The last parliamentary election was held in September 2010, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

but due to disputes and investigation of fraud, the sworn in ceremony took place in late January 2011. After the issuance of computerized ID cards for the first time, which is a $101 million project that the Afghan government plans to start in 2012, it is expected to help prevent major fraud in future elections and improve the security situation.[180] SONY VAIO VGN-AR170P Laptop Keyboard

Administrative divisions

Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayats), with each province having its own capital and a provincial administration. The provinces are further divided into about 398 smaller provincial districts, each of which normally covers a city or a number of villages. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Each district is represented by a district governor.

The provincial governors are appointed by the President of Afghanistan and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

There are also provincial councils which are elected through direct and general elections for a period of four years.[181] The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. However, due to huge election costs, mayoral and municipal elections have never been held. Instead, mayors have been appointed by the government. As for the capital city of Kabul, the mayor is appointed by the President of Afghanistan. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

The Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for managing the foreign relations of Afghanistan. The nation has been a member of the UN since 1946, and has maintained good relations with the United States and other NATO member states since the signing of the Anglo-Afghan Treaty in 1919. Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) was established in 2002 under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1401 to help the nation recover from decades of war and establish a normal functioning government. Today, more than 22 NATO nations deploy about 100,000 troops in Afghanistan as part of the International Security Assistance Force(ISAF). TOSHIBA Qosmio F45-AV411 Laptop Keyboard

Apart from close military links, the country also enjoys strong economic relations with NATO members and their allies. It also has diplomatic relations with neighboring Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, the People's Republic of China, including regional states such as India, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Russia, United Arab Emirate, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Japan, South Korea, and others. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Afghanistan–Pakistan relations have been negatively affected by issues related to the Durand Line, the 1978–present war(i.e. Mujahideen, Afghan refugees, Taliban insurgency, and border skirmishes), including water and the growing influence of India in Afghanistan.[182][183] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

Afghan officials often allege that Pakistani and Iranian intelligence agencies are involved in terrorist attacks inside Afghanistan, by training and guiding terrorists to carry out attacks.[184][185][186] HP 633183-001 Laptop Keyboard

Afghanistan has always depended on Pakistani trade routes for import and export but this has changed in the last decade with the opening of Central Asian and Iranian routes.[187] Conversely, Pakistan depends onAfghan water and considers Afghanistan as the only trade route to Central Asian resources.[188] ASUS F81 laptop keyboard

India and Iran have actively participated in reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan,[189] with India being the largest regional donor to the country.[190] Since 2002, India has pledged up to $2 billion in economic assistance to Afghanistan and has participated in multiple socio-economic reconstruction efforts, including power, roads, agricultural and educational projects.[190][191] COMPAQ 442887-001 laptop keyboard

There are also military ties between Afghanistan and India, which is expected to increase after the October 2011 strategic pact that was signed by President Karzai and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.[192][193] DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard

The military of Afghanistan is under the Ministry of Defense, which includes the Afghan National Army (ANA) and the Afghan Air Force (AAF). It currently has about 200,000 active soldiers and is expected to reach 260,000 in the coming years. HP Pavilion dv5-1133la laptop keyboard

They are trained and equipped by NATO countries, mainly by the United States Department of Defense. The ANA is divided into 7 major Corps, with the 201st Selab ("Flood") in Kabul followed by the 203rd in Gardez, 205th Atul ("Hero") in Kandahar, 207th in Herat, 209th in Mazar-i-Sharif and the 215th in Lashkar Gah. SONY Vaio VGN-FW290N laptop keyboard

The ANA also has a commando brigade which was established in 2007. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan serves as the main educational institute for the militarymen of the country. A new $200 million Afghan Defense University (ADU) is under construction near the capital. HP Pavilion dv3-2310ea laptop keyboard

The National Directorate of Security (NDS) is the nation's domestic intelligence agency, which operates similar to that of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and has between 15,000 to 30,000 employees. SONY VAIO VGN-FS965F laptop keyboard

The nation also has about 126,000 national police officers, with plans to recruit more so that the total number can reach 160,000.[194] The Afghan National Police (ANP) is under the Ministry of the Interior, which is based in Kabul and headed by Bismillah Khan Mohammadi. Lenovo Ideapad G565 laptop keyboard

The Afghan National Civil Order Police is the main branch of the Afghan National Police, which is divided into five Brigades and each one commanded by a Brigadier General. These brigades are stationed in Kabul, Gardez, Kandahar, Herat, and Mazar-i-Sharif. Compaq Presario CQ71-230SA laptop keyboard

Every province of the country has a provincial Chief of Police who is appointed by the Ministry of the Interior and is responsible for law enforcement in all the districts within the province. Compaq Presario CQ42-205AU laptop keyboard

The police are being trained by NATO countries through the Afghanistan Police Program. According to a 2009 news report, a large proportion of police officers are illiterate and are accused of demanding bribes.[195] Jack Kem, deputy to the commander of NATO Training Mission Afghanistan and Combined Security Transition Command Afghanistan, HP Pavilion dm1-1010ef laptop keyboard

stated that the literacy rate in the ANP will rise to over 50% by January 2012. What began as a voluntary literacy program became mandatory for basic police training in early 2011.[194] HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard

Approximately 17% of them test positive for illegal drug use. In 2009, President Karzai created two anti-corruption units within the Interior Ministry.[196] Former Interior Minister Hanif Atmarsaid that security officials from the U.S. (FBI), Britain (Scotland Yard) and the European Union will train prosecutors in the unit. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

The south and eastern parts of Afghanistan are the most dangerous due to the flourishing drug trade and militancy. These areas in particular are often patrolled by Taliban insurgents, and in many cases they plan attacks by using suicide bombers and planting improvised explosive devices (IEDs) on roads. SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

Kidnapping and robberies are also often reported. Every year many Afghan police officers are killed in the line of duty in these areas. The Afghan Border Police are responsible for protecting the nation's airports and borders, especially the disputed Durand Line border which is often used by members of criminal organizations and terrorists for their illegal activities. HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

Reports in 2011 suggested that up to 3 million people are involved in the illegal drug business in Afghanistan, many of the attacks on government employees and institutions are carried out not only by the Taliban militants but also by powerful criminal gangs.[197] HP G72-b60US Laptop Keyboard

Drugs from Afghanistan are exported to Iran, Pakistan, Russia, India, the United Arab Emirate, and the European Union. The Afghan Ministry of Counter Narcotics is dealing with this problem. Recently, the people mustered courage and took to streets in Kabul to protest against gruesome killing of a woman accused of adultery by suspected Taliban in the Parwan province.[198] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Afghanistan is an impoverished and least developed country, one of the world's poorest due to the decades of war and nearly complete lack of foreign investment. The nation's GDP stands at about $29 billion with an exchange rate of $18 billion, and the GDP per capita is about $1,000. The country's export was $2.6 billion in 2010. Its unemployment rate is about 35% and roughly the same percentage of its citizens live below the poverty line.[2] HP Pavilion dv7-4169wm Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

About 42% of the population live on less than $1 a day, according to a 2009 report.[199] The nation has less than $1.5 billion external debt and is recovering by the assistance of the world community.[2]  GATEWAY M-6846 Laptop Keyboard

The Afghan economy has been growing at about 10% per year in the last decade, which is due to the infusion of over $50 billion dollars in international aid and remittances from Afghan expats.[2] HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

It is also due to improvements made to thetransportation system and agricultural production, which is the backbone of the nation's economy.[200] The country is known for producing some of the finest pomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits, including nuts.[201] TOSHIBA 6037B0017206 Laptop Keyboard

While the nations's current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. SONY NSK-S8101 Laptop Keyboard

The Afghan Ministry of Finance is focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. For example, government revenues increased 31% to $1.7 billion from March 2010 to March 2011. SONY VAIO PCG-F16/BP Laptop Keyboard

Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation and the "Afghani" (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 47 Afghanis to 1 US dollar. Since 2003, over 16 new banks have opened in the country, includingAfghanistan International Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, First Micro Finance Bank, and others. SONY VAIO VGN-NW250D/W Laptop Keyboard

One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. For the first time since the 1970s, TOSHIBA 9J.N9282.W01 laptop keyboard

Afghans have involved themselves in construction, one of the largest industries in the country.[202]Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 bn New Kabul City next to the capital, the Ghazi Amanullah Khan City near Jalalabad, and the Aino Mena in Kandahar.[203][204][205] Similar development projects have also begun in Heratin the west, Mazar-e-Sharif in the north and in other cities.[206] Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

In addition, a number of companies and small factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business-enabling environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003.[207SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard

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] The Afghan rugs are becoming popular again and this gives many carpet dealers around the country to expand their business by hiring more workers.

Afghanistan is a member of SAARC, ECO and OIC. It is hoping to join SCO soon to develop closer economic ties with neighboring and regional countries in the so-called New Silk Road trade project. Foreign Minister Zalmai Rassoul told the media in 2011 that his nation's "goal is to achieve an Afghan economy whose growth is based on trade, private enterprise and investment".[208] HP Pavilion dv6-2010ep laptop keyboard

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