Bangladesh

Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ;Gônoprojatontri Bangladesh), is a country in South Asia. Located on the fertile Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, it is part of the ancient and historic region of Bengal. The name Bangladesh means "Country of Bengal" in the officialBengali language. To its south lies the Bay of Bengal, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

while it is bordered by the Republic of India on the north, west and east, and Burma (Myanmar) to the southeast. It is separated from Nepal and Bhutan by India's narrowSiliguri corridor and is situated in geographical proximity to China. With a population of more than 160 million people, Bangladesh is the world's eighth-most populous country as well as one of the world's most densely populated countries. It has the fourth-largest population in the Muslim world. HP G62-470CA Laptop Keyboard

The present-day borders of Bangladesh were established during the partition of the British Indian Empire in 1947, when eastern Bengal became part of the newly formed nation of Pakistan. It was separated from West Pakistan by nearly 1,500 km (about 900 mi) of Indian territory. TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5160 Laptop Keyboard

Due to political exclusion, ethnic and linguistic discrimination, and economic neglect by the politically dominant western wing, popular agitation and civil disobedience led to the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. After independence, the new state endured poverty, famine, political turmoil and military coups. The restoration of democracy in 1991 has been followed by relative calm and economic progress. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Founded as a secular democracy in 1971, Bangladesh is a unitary multiparty parliamentary republic with an elected national parliament called the Jatiyo Sangshad.[7] It is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the OIC, NAM, the Developing 8 Countries and BIMSTEC. A long-standing proponent of regional engagement in South Asia, Bangladesh pioneered the creation of SAARC. Its armed forces are among the world's largest contributorsto United Nations peacekeeping forces. COMPAQ Presario CQ41-204TX Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh continues to face a number of major challenges, including poverty, corruption, political instability,overpopulation and vulnerability to climate change. However, it has been praised by the international community for its significant progress on the Human Development Index.[8] Through various acclaimed Bangladeshi public and NGO-led social programs, Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

the country is improving living standards and life expectancy, promoting education and women empowerment, stemming population growth, achieving self-sufficiency in food production and building healthcare infrastructure.[9][10][11] The country is undergoing rapid industrialization, DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

with globally competitive industries in textiles, shipbuilding and pharmaceuticals.[12] Dhaka and Chittagong, the country's two largest cities, have been the driving force for much of the recent growth. Bangladesh has been identified as a Next Eleven emerging economy. HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

"Bengal" is unclear, though it is believed to be derived from Bang/Vanga, the Dravidian-speaking tribe that settled in the area around the year 1000 BCE.[14] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai, or "Nation of Ganges". Early history featured the rise of Vedic states and a succession of Buddhist and Hindu dynasties. During the first millennium BCE, it was home to severaljanapadas including Vanga, Samatata and Pundravardhana. HP Probook 4510S Laptop Keyboard

Bengal was conquered by the Mauryans in the 2nd century BCE, and absorbed into a succession of Magadha empires. Following the collapse of the Magadha, a local ruler named Shashanka rose to power and founded an impresseive short-lived kingdom. After a period of anarchy, the Bengali Buddhist Pala dynasty ruled the region for four hundred years, followed by the shorter reign of the Hindu Sena Dynasty. HP Pavilion dv3-2108tu Laptop Keyboard

Islam was introduced to Bengal in the 8th century by Arab Muslim merchants and Sufi missionaries.[15] Subsequent Muslim rule enforced the process of conversion through the establishment of mint towns, mosques, madrasas and Sufi khanqahs.[16] Muslim conquest came in 1204, when Bakhtiar Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena Dynasty. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

In 1338,Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah declared independence from the Delhi Sultans in Sonargaon and a few years later, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah established the Sultanate of Bengal at Gaur in 1342. The Sultans ruled for over two centuries, with their influence spanning from present-day Bihar to Arakan. The powerful Baro-Bhuyan landlords also exercised considerable autonomous authority in different regions. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

By the 16th century, the Mughal Empire controlled Bengal, and Dhaka became a major administrative and economic center of the empire. Under the Mughals, the region enjoyed a flourishing economy brought on by agrarian reforms and increased foreign trade. It earned the reputation of "Golden Bengal" for its prosperity and wealth, HP Pavilion dv6-3192sf Laptop Keyboard

and was described by the Mughal emperors as the Paradise of Nations. Medieval European geographers also located paradise at the mouth of the Ganges, and Bengal was probably the wealthiest part of the subcontinent until the 17th century. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

From 1517 onwards, Portuguese traders were traversing the sea-route to Bengal. They were not allowed to begin to settle there until 1537, when they opened customs houses at Chittagong. In 1577, Mughal emperor Akbar permitted the Portuguese to build permanent settlements and churches in Bengal.[17] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

The Maratha Empire, a Hindu empire which overran the Mughals in the 18th century, also devastated the territories controlled by the Nawab of Bengal between 1742 and 1751. In a series of raids on Bengal and Bihar, Maratha demolished much of the Bengali economy. Nawab Ali Vardi Khan made peace with Maratha by ceding Orissa and parts of Western Bengal to the empire. HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Marathas imposed a tax, thechauth, amounting to a quarter of total revenue, on other parts of Bengal and Bihar. This tax amounted to twenty lakhs(of rupees?) for Bengal and 1.2 million for Bihar per year.[18][19] Maratha was defeated in Panipat by a coalition of Muslim forces, but imperial forces returned under the Maratha general Madhoji Sindhia and raided Bengal again. SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard

Colonial period

The influence of European traders grew until the British East India Company gained control of Bengal following theBattle of Plassey in 1757.[20] The British Empire stopped payment of the chauth, invading the territory of Bengal in 1760s. The raids continued until Maratha was finally defeated by the British over the course of three Anglo-Maratha Wars, lasting from 1777 to 1818.  HP Pavilion dv6171CL laptop keyboard

The bloody rebellion of 1857—known as the Sepoy Mutiny—resulted in a transfer of authority from the East India Company to the Crown, and a British viceroy was appointed to run the administration.[21] The British established a system of law and administration, but struggled to support the population. During colonial rule, famine racked South Asia many times. The Great Bengal famine of 1943, related to events in World War II, claimed 3 million lives.[22] SONY VAIO VPCF121GX laptop keyboard

After the British Empire withdrew in 1947, India was partitioned along religious lines, which also divided Bengal: the western part went to the newly created Indiaand the eastern part (Muslim majority) to the new Pakistan. It was known as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan), with its capital at Dhaka.[24] HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard

In 1950, Pakistan achieved land reform in East Bengal with the abolition of thefeudal zamindari system.[25] East Bengal had the majority of population and economic resources, but Pakistan's government and military were largely dominated by the upper classes of the west wing, HP Pavilion DV7-3186cl laptop keyboard

later known as West Pakistan. In response to the national government's making Urdu the only official language in both wings, the Bengali Language Movement of 1952 in East Pakistan was a sign of its rising power and the friction between the two wings.[26] Dissatisfaction with the central government over economic and cultural issues increased through the next decade, SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard

during which the Awami League emerged as the political voice of the Bengali-speaking population. It agitated for autonomy in the 1960s, and in 1966, its president, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Mujib), was jailed by the national Pakistan government. He was released in 1969 after an unprecedented popular uprising. SONY VAIO PCG-FX90G/K laptop keyboard

In 1970, a massive cyclone devastated the coast of East Pakistan, killing up to half a million people,[27] and the central government responded poorly. That year, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Awami League won a majority in Parliament in the 1970 elections, but West Pakistan politicians resisted letting him form a government, as he was entitled to by the results of the election.[28] The Bengali population felt discriminated against by West Pakistan's leaders. Compaq Presario CQ56-110US laptop keyboard

After staging compromise talks with Mujib, President Yahya Khan and military officials launched Operation Searchlight,[29] a sustained military assault on East Pakistan. Forces arrested Mujibur in the early hours of 26 March 1971. That night, Ziaur Rahman broadcast a declaration of independence in Mujibur's name. Lenovo 39T7385 laptop keyboard

Yahya ordered the killing of leaders and intellectuals; the violence of the war resulted in many civilian deaths, particularly among the minority Hindu population.[30] About one millionrefugees fled to neighbouring India.[31] Estimates of those massacred during the short war range from thirty thousand to 3,000,000.[32] Pakistan finally released Mujibur Rahman on 8 January 1972, due to direct United States intervention.[33] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-SP6001L laptop keyboard

Awami League leaders set up a government-in-exile in Calcutta, India after the war started. The exile government formally took oath at Meherpur, in Kustia district of East Pakistan on 17 April 1971, with Tajuddin Ahmad as the first Prime Minister and Syed Nazrul Islam as the Acting President. Thousands of Bengali Regular forces were stranded in West Pakistan, where they were immediately interned. SONY VAIO VGN-FS415E laptop keyboard

The Bangladesh Liberation War lasted for nine months. The Bangladesh Forces, formed within 11 sectors and led by General M.A.G. Osmani, consisting of Bengali Regular forces, conducted a widespread guerrilla war against the Pakistan Forces with support from the Mukti Bahinis (freedom fighters). DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

India entered the war in support of Bangladesh after the massacres and the hundreds of thousands refugees crossing the border. Indian Maj. Gen. Sujat Singh Uban managed to finance and equip the Kaderia Bahni, Hemayet Bahini, and other forces who fought with the Mukti Bahini. The Indian Army, assisted by Bangladeshi forces, negotiated a cease-fire and surrounded the Dhaka Area. The Indian Army remained in Bangladesh to secure the peace until 19 March 1972. HP G72-a10SV Laptop Keyboard

After achieving independence, the Awami League came to power with Mujib as the Prime Minister, without holding any new elections. When the nation held parliamentary elections in 1973, the Awami League gained an absolute majority. A nationwide famine occurred during 1973 and 1974.[22] In early 1975, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Mujib initiated a one-party socialist rule with his newly formedBAKSAL. Resistance to this rule grew, especially among the repatriated members of the armed forces, who constituted 60 percent of the officers. They felt discriminated against in a country that gave high places in government, the army and business to the Mukti Bahini. SONY 148084122 Laptop Keyboard

On 15 August 1975, mid-level military officers staged a coup d'état, assassinating Mujib and most of his family members (two daughters were out of the country).[34] Vice President Khandaker Mushtaq Ahmed was sworn in as President, and most of Mujib's cabinet was kept intact. Army coups on 3 November and another on 7 November 1975 led to a reorganised structure of power. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Astate of emergency was declared to restore order and calm, and Mushtaq resigned. The military placed the country under temporary martial law, with three service chiefs serving as deputies to the new president, Justice Abu Sayem, who was named the Chief Martial Law Administrator. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In 1977, after the resignation of Justice Sayem, Lieutenant General Ziaur Rahman took over the presidency. Known as Zia and highly popular with many in the country, he reinstated multi-party politics and introduced free markets. In 1978 he founded the Bangladesh Nationalist Party(BNP), which elevated the role of Islam in the state. Zia's rule ended when he was assassinated in 1981 in a military coup.[34] HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

Sheikh Hasina, the eldest daughter of Mujibur, returned to the country in 1981 and became head of the Awami League, a position she continues to hold. She has served more than once as prime minister. SAMSUNG X20 Laptop Keyboard

Lieutenant General Hussain Mohammad Ershad gained power in a military coup on 24 March 1982, and ruled until 6 December 1990. He restored political activity and tried to civilianise his government, founding the Jatiya Party and holding an election in 1986, which the BNP boycotted. He was elected as president. He finally resigned after increasing protests by all major political parties and the public, HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

which were damaging the economy and society. In addition, there was pressure from Western nations that had been providing financial assistance to Bangladesh's development. The fall of the Soviet Union affected both foreign and domestic policies. Bangladesh re-established its parliamentary democracy in 1991. Zia's widow, Khaleda Zia, led the Bangladesh Nationalist Party to parliamentary victory at the general election in 1991, when she became the first female Prime Minister in Bangladeshi history. HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Awami League, headed by Sheikh Hasina, Mujib's eldest daughter, won the elections in 1996. After its term, it lost to the Bangladesh Nationalist Party in 2001. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Widespread political unrest followed the resignation of the BNP in late October 2006, but the caretaker government worked to bring the parties to election within the required 90 days. At the last minute in early January, the Awami League withdrew from the scheduled election later that month. DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

On 11 January 2007, the military intervened to support a state of emergency, and a continued but neutral caretaker government, under a newly appointed Chief Advisor who was not a politician. The country had suffered from extensive corruption for decades,[35] disorder and political violence. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The caretaker government worked to root out corruption from all levels of government. It arrested more than 160 persons on corruption charges, including politicians, civil servants and businessmen, among whom were both major party leaders, some of their senior staff and two sons of Khaleda Zia. ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard

After working to clean up the system, the caretaker government held what was described by observers as a largely free and fair election on 29 December 2008.[36]The Awami League's Sheikh Hasina won with a two-thirds landslide in the elections; she took the oath of Prime Minister on 6 January 2009ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh lies between latitudes 20° and 27°N, and longitudes 88° and 93°E. Bangladesh is in the low-lying Ganges Delta. This delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna also known as "Yamuna"), and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. ACER Aspire 5740 Laptop Keyboard

The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna to eventually empty into the Bay of Bengal. The alluvial soil deposited by these rivers has created some of the most fertile plains in the world. Bangladesh has 57 trans-boundary rivers, making water issues politically complicated to resolve – in most cases as the lower riparian state to India.[38] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Most parts of Bangladesh are less than 12 m (39.4 ft) above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 m (3.28 ft).[39]

In southeast Bangladesh, experiments have been done since the 1960s to 'build with nature'. By implementing cross dams, the natural accretion of silt has created new land. FUJITSU Lifebook E8110 Laptop Keyboard

With Dutch funding, the Bangladeshi government began to help develop this new land in the late 1970s. The effort has since become a multiagency operation building roads, culverts, embankments, cyclone shelters, toilets and ponds, as well as distributing land to settlers. By fall 2010, the program will have allotted some 27,000 acres (10,927 ha) to 21,000 families.[40] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 m (3,451 ft) in the Chittagong Hill Tracts to the southeast of the country.[41] Cox's Bazar, south of the city of Chittagong, has a beach that stretches uninterrupted over 120 km (75 mi). HP Mini 210-2006sa laptop keyboard

HP Pavilion dv6-2147el laptop keyboard

Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladeshi climate is tropical with a mild winter from October to March, and a hot, humid summer from March to June. Interestingly, the country has never frozen at any point on the ground, with a record low of 4.5°C in the south west city of Jessore in the winter of 2011.[42] Compaq Presario CQ71-410ED laptop keyboard

A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, andtidal bores occur almost every year,[43] combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. Thecyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating. A cyclone that struck Bangladesh in 1991 killed some 140,000 people.[44] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q laptop keyboard

In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern world history. As the Brahmaputra, the Ganges and Meghnaspilt over and swallowed 300,000 houses, 9,700 km (6,000 mi) of road and 2,700 km (1,700 mi) of embankment, 1,000 people were killed and 30 million more were made homeless, with 135,000 cattle killed, 50 km2 (19 sq mi) of land destroyed and 11,000 km (6,800 mi) of roads damaged or destroyed. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

Two-thirds of the country was underwater. There were several reasons for the severity of the flooding. Firstly, there were unusually high monsoon rains. Secondly, the Himalayas shed off an equally unusually high amount of melt water that year. Thirdly, trees that usually would have intercepted rain water had been cut down for firewood or to make space for animals.[45] TOSHIBA V000120280 laptop keyboard

Bangladesh is now widely recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change. Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health and shelter.[46] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

It is believed that in the coming decades the rising sea level alone will create more than 20 million[47] climate refugees.[48] Bangladeshi water is contaminated with arsenic frequently because of the high arsenic contents in the soil. Up to 77 million people are exposed to toxic arsenic from drinking water.[49][50] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh is among the countries most prone to natural floods, tornados andcyclones.[51][52] Also, there is evidence that earthquakes pose a threat to the country. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Evidence shows that tectonics have caused rivers to shift course suddenly and dramatically. It has been shown that rainy-season flooding in Bangladesh, on the world’s largest river delta, can push the underlying crust down by as much as 6 centimetres, and possibly perturb faults.[53] ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard

A major part of the coastline is marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the Royal Bengal Tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered.[54] The Magpie Robin is theNational Bird of Bangladesh and it is common and known as the Doyel or Doel (Bengali: দোয়েল). DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

It is a widely used symbol in Bangladesh, appearing on currency notes and a landmark in the city of Dhaka is named as the Doyel Chatwar (meaning: Doyel Square). The national flower of the country is water lily, which is known as Shapla. The national fruit is jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), which in Bengali is known as Kathal. In late 2010, the Bangladeshi government selected the Mangotree as the national tree.[55] SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard

Bangladesh is a unitary state and parliamentary democracy.[56] Direct elections in which all citizens, aged 18 or over, can vote are held every five years for the unicameral parliament known as the Jatiyo Sangshad. Currently it has 350 members (including 50 reserved seats for women) elected from single-member constituencies. GATEWAY M-6846 laptop keyboard

The Prime Minister, as the head of government, forms the cabinet and runs the day-to-day affairs of state. While the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the President, he or she must be a member of parliament who commands the confidence of the majority. TOSHIBA 9J.N5682.701 laptop keyboard

The President is the head of state, albeit mainly ceremonially in his/her elected post;[57] however, the President's powers are substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government, which is responsible for the conduct of elections and transfer of power. TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s119 laptop keyboard

The officers of the caretaker government must be non-partisan and are given three months to complete their task. This transitional arrangement was pioneered by Bangladesh in its 1991 election and then institutionalised in 1996 through its 13th constitutional amendment.[58] ACER NSK-H361D laptop keyboard

Major parties in Bangladesh include the Awami League, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), the Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami(BJI), and the Jatiya Party of former military dictator Ershad. Sheikh Hasina's Awami League aligns with more leftistparties, whereas Khaleda Zia's BNP has politically been allied with Islamist parties like the BJI but practices secular politics. HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard

The former two have been bitter, dominant political rivals for over 15 years; each is related to one of the leaders of the independence movement. The Awami League-BNP rivalry has been punctuated by protests, violence and murder. Student politics are particularly strong in Bangladesh, a legacy from the liberation movement era, as almost all parties have highly active student wings, and student leaders have been elected to the Jatiyo Sangshad. SONY Vaio PCG-K45 laptop keyboard

On 11 January 2007, following widespread political unrest, emergency law was declared and a caretaker government was appointed to administer the next general election. The 22 January 2007 election was postponed indefinitely as the Army-backed caretaker government of Fakhruddin Ahmed aimed to prepare a new voter list and crack down on corruption. SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard

They also assisted the interim government of Bangladesh in a drive against corruption, which resulted in Bangladesh's position inTransparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index changed from the very bottom, where they had been for 3 years in a row, to 147th in just 1 year.[59] A large alliance led by the Bangladesh Awami League won in a 29 December 2008 landslide victory, gaining 230 seats among 300 seats in the parliament.[60] SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z laptop keyboard

Subdivisions Bangladesh is divided into seven administrative divisions,[1][61] each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi, Sylhet and Rangpur. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided intoupazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, which are further divided into mahallas. There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held for each union (or ward), electing a chairperson and a number of members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates.[62] GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard

Dhaka is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh. The cities with a city corporation, having mayoral elections, include Dhaka South, Dhaka North, Chittagong, Khulna, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Barisal, Rangpur, Comilla and Gazipur. Other major cities, these and other municipalities electing a chairperson, include Mymensingh, Gopalganj, Jessore, Bogra,Dinajpur, Saidapur, Narayanganj and Rangamati. Both the municipal heads are elected for a span of five years. SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

The legal system of Bangladesh is primarily in accordance with the English legal system, although since 1947 the legal scenario and the laws of Bangladesh have drifted far from the West owing to differences in socio-cultural values and religious guidelines. Laws are loosely based on English common law, but family laws such as marriage and inheritance are based on religious scriptures, and therefore differ between religious communities. The Constitution of Bangladesh was drafted in 1972 and has undergone 15 amendments.[58] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard

The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court, with justices appointed by the President. The judicial and law enforcement institutions are comparatively weak.[65] On 1 November 2007, Bangladesh successfully separated the Judiciary Branch from the Executive, but several black laws, including the Special Powers Act, still influence the rulers.[66] It is expected that this separation will make the judiciary stronger and more impartial. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh pursues a moderate foreign policy that places heavy reliance on multinational diplomacy, especially at the United Nations. In 1974, Bangladesh joined both the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations, and has since been elected to serve two terms on the Security Council – in 1978–1979 and 2000–2001. DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

In the 1980s, Bangladesh pioneered the formation of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in order to expand relations with other South Asian states. In more recent years, Bangladeshi foreign policy has focused on promoting regional economic integration in South Asia, as well as the wider neighborhood. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh's most important and complex foreign relationship is with India. This relationship is formed by historical and cultural ties and is strengthened because of India's involvement in liberating the people of Bangladesh from Pakistan. This forms an important part of the domestic political discourse. HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh's relationship with India began on a positive note because of India's assistance in the independence war and subsequent reconstruction. Throughout the years, the relationship between the two countries has fluctuated for a number of reasons. A major source of tension between Bangladesh and India is the Farakka Dam.[67] In 1975, India constructed a dam on the Ganges River 10.3 mi (16.6 km) TOSHIBA Satellite A205-S5823 Laptop Keyboard

from the Bangladeshi border. Bangladesh alleges that the dam diverts much needed water from Bangladesh and adds a man-made disaster to a country already plagued by natural disasters. However, both countries recognize the importance of good relations, regional security and South Asian economic integration. In 2009, TOSHIBA NSK-TAJ01 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladeshi security forces launched a crackdown on Indian insurgents hiding in the country's border regions, captured and deported the leaders of several insurgent groups. Bangladesh and India have also agreed to develop regional connectivity and economic integration, along with Nepal and Bhutan. India's eastern states, as well as Nepal and Bhutan, are keen to gain access to Bangladesh's Chittagong and Mongla ports.[68][69]  DELL NSK-DJD01 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh enjoys very warm ties with the People's Republic of China, and particularly in the past decade, there has been increased economic cooperation between them. Between 2006 and 2007, trade between the two nations rose by 28.5% and there have been agreements to grant various Bangladeshi commodities tariff-free access to the Chinese market. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

Cooperation between the Military of Bangladesh and the People's Liberation Army is also increasing, with joint military agreements signed and Bangladesh purchasing Chinese arms which range from small arms to large naval surface combat ships such as the Chinese Type 053H1 Missile Frigate. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The United States is a major development partner of Bangladesh, giving over six billion dollars in aid since 1972. American companies are the largest foreign investors in the country, and the US is also the largest market for Bangladeshi exports. Bangladesh participated in the US-led coalition during the 1991 Gulf War to liberate Kuwait, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

and supports the US-led reconstruction of Afghanistan. The US Military has taken part in several disaster management and relief operations in aftermath of devastating floods and cyclones to have hit Bangladesh, including Cyclone O2B and Cyclone Sidr.[69] DELL Inspiron 8500 Laptop Keyboard

As of 2012, the current strength of the army is around 300,000 including reservists,[70] the air force 22,000,[71] and navy 19,000.[72] In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has been called on to provide support to civil authorities for disaster relief and internal security during periods of political unrest. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh is not currently active in any ongoing war, but it contributed 2,300 troops during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, and is the world's largest contributor (10,736) to UN peacekeeping forces. In May 2007, Bangladesh had major deployments in Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Sudan, Timor-Leste and Côte d'Ivoire.[73][74] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh is a developing nation.[75] Goldman Sachs named it one of the "Next Eleven".[76] Bangladesh gradually decreased its dependency on foreign grant and loan from 85% (In 1988)[77] to 2% (In 2010)[78] for its annual development budget. Its per capita income in 2010 was US$641 compared to the world average of $8,985.[79] In December 2005, the Central Bank of Bangladesh projected GDP growth around 6.5%.[80] Toshiba Satellite A200-1E1 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Bangladesh has seen a dramatic increase in foreign direct investment. In order to enhance economic growth, the government set up several export processing zones to attract foreign investment. These are managed by the Bangladesh Export Processing Zone Authority. Toshiba Satellite A105-S271 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The insufficient power supply constitutes an obstacle to growth.[81] According to the World Bank, "among Bangladesh’s most significant obstacles to growth are poor governance and weak public institutions."[82] In April 2010, Standard & Poor'sawarded Bangladesh a BB- for a long term in credit rating which is below India and well over Pakistan and Sri Lanka in South Asia.[83] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

One significant contributor to the development of the economy has been the widespread propagation of microcredit by Muhammad Yunus (awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006) through the Grameen Bank. By the late 1990s, Grameen Bank had 2.3 million members, along with 2.5 million members of other similar organisations.[84] TOSHIBA Satellite P300-18M laptop keyboard

Bangladesh government is planning for construction of the largest deep sea port in South Asia at Sonadia Island. The 500 billion taka project will be completed in multiple phases and enable Bangladesh to service the whole region as a maritime transport and logistics hub. India, China, Bhutan, Nepal and other neighbouring countries will be able to take full advantage of the strategic location and Bangladesh’s LDC status for exporting their goods, which are manufactured in Bangladesh.[85][86] DELL 0NC929 laptop keyboard

Furthermore, with $7.5 billion a new international airport will be constructed. The airport is being modelled on Thailand’s Suvarnabhumi Airport in size and capacity.[87] HP G42-200XX laptop keyboard

To ease the chaotic traffic congestion in the capital Dhaka the government plans to construct more expressways, freeways, and flyovers.[88] There is a plan to build an overhead Rapid transit called Dhaka Metro, but the progress is slow and controversial because of contracts and agreements.[89][90][91] GATEWAY M680 laptop keyboard

Recently the government of Bangladesh signed a deal with a Chinese company to provide high-speed modern DEMU trains and is also going to construct metro rail system and high-speed electric powered inter city rail network. More airports, bridge (such as the multi-billion Padma Bridge project) national highways are also being constructed to facilitate trade and regional development.[92] Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

pineapple (16th), tropical Fruit (5th), onion (16th), banana (17th), jute (2nd), tea (11th).

Jute was once the economic engine of the country. Its share of the world export market peaked in the Second World War and the late 1940s at 80%[94] and even in the early 1970s accounted for 70% of its export earnings. However, polypropylene products began to substitute for jute products worldwide and the jute industry started to decline. Bangladesh grows very significant quantities of rice, tea, potato, mango, onion and mustard. IBM ThinkPad T42 2378 laptop keyboard

More than three-quarters of Bangladesh’s export earnings come from the garment industry[95] in 2005. The industry began attracting foreign investors in the 1980s due to cheap labour and low conversion cost. In 2011–12 fiscal year the industry exported US$18 billion[96] Packard Bell Easynote TK81 laptop keyboard

worth of products where in 2002 the exported amount was US$5 billion. Bangladesh has been ranked as the 4th[97] largest clothing exporter by the WTO (The World Trade Organization) .[98] whereas, according to The EconomistBangladesh is the world’s third-largest clothes-export industry.[99] The industry now employs more than 3 million workers, 90% of whom are women.[100] TOSHIBA Satellite A205-S5823 laptop keyboard

There has also been a significant growth to Bangladesh's ship building industry in the last few years. The required ships and vessels in the country are being produced by the local shipbuilders. Furthermore, they have already started taking orders and executing them perfectly for foreign companies from Germany, IBM ThinkPad T40p 2373 Laptop Keyboard

Denmark and other European countries who prefer the cheap market of Bangladesh over their local market. The Khulna Shipyard have successfully completed building a Khulna Class LPC(LargePatrol Craft) and a LCVP(Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel) for the Bangladesh Navy and Bangladesh Army respectively, the cost being almost half of their import price. They are to build 5 more LPCs of the same class in the coming year. DELL PK130AF2B00 Laptop Keyboard

The tourism sector in Bangladesh has experienced massive growth in recent years. The majority of growth is contributed by local tourists. It is believed to be a major tourist destination if properly advertised. Nonetheless, few government andprivate initiatives have been taken to attract foreign tourists. TOSHIBA G83C0000EA10 Laptop Keyboard

Though small in area, Bangladesh is quite rich in heritage with numerous historical and archeological sites. It has the longest natural unbroken sea beach and five World Heritage Sites. Among those are famous eighty one domed Shat Gombuj Mosque in Bagerhat, made by great Muslim saint Khan Jahan Ali in the 15th century; world's largest Mangrove forest Sundarbans which is also renowned for its world famous Royal Bengal Tiger. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

There are several exotic archaeological sites in the northern parts of Bangladesh, including the temple city Puthia inRajshahi; the largest and most ancient archaeological site, Mahasthangarh in Bogra; Among the best known Buddhist viharas in the Indian Subcontinent and one of the most important archaeological sites in the country, Paharpur in Naogaon, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

declared as aUNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985; Kantaji Temple, the most ornamental terracota Hindu temple in Bangladesh and many rajbaris or palaces of old zamindars. There are historic mosques too with vast architectural beauty like Shona Mosque built in 1493, Bagha Mosque, in 1523,Sixty Dome Mosque in 1459, etc. SONY VAIO VGN-FS550 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh has the largest shopping mall in South Asia, which is 13th largest in the world. It is Bashundhara City Shopping Mall which is situated at Karwan Bazar in Dhaka.

The population of Bangladesh as of 15 March 2011 is 142.3 million (census 2011 results; this is a preliminary figure which has been disputed by the UN and now by Bangladeshis themselves),[102] HP Mini 110-3506tu Laptop Keyboard

much less than recent (2007–2010) estimates of Bangladesh's population ranging from 150 to 170 million and it is the 8th most populous nation in the world. In 1951, the population was 44 million.[103] It is also the most densely populated large country in the world, and it ranks 11th in population density, when very small countries and city-states are included.[104]  ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh's population growth rate was among the highest in the world in the 1960s and 1970s, when the country swelled from 65 to 110 million. With the promotion of birth control in the 1980s, the growth rate began to slow.The fertility rate now stands at 2.55, lower than India (2.58) and Pakistan (3.07) The population is relatively young, with 34% aged 15 or younger and 5% 65 or older. Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 70 years for both males and females in 2012.[1] HP Mini 210-1000 CTO Laptop Keyboard

The overwhelming majority of Bangladeshis are ethnic Bengali, constituting 98% of the population.[105] The remainder are mostly Biharis and indigenous tribal groups. There is also a small but growing population of Rohingya refugees from Burma around Cox's Bazaar, which Bangladesh seeks to repatriate to Burma. The tribal peoples are concentrated in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the southeast. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

There are 45 tribal groups located in this region, the largest being the Chakma. The Hill Tracts region has been a source of unrest and separatism since and before the inception of Bangladesh.[106] Outside the Hill Tracts, the largest tribal groups are the Santhals and Garos (Achiks), while smaller groups include the Kaibarta, Meitei, Mundas, Oraons, and Zomi. ACER NSK-AL01D Laptop Keyboard

Languages

Main article: Languages of Bangladesh

More than 98% of Bangladeshis speak Bengali as their mother tongue as it is the official language.[107][108] It is an Indo-Aryan language of Sanskrit origin with its own script. English is used as a second language among the middle and upper classes.[109] English is also widely used in higher education and the legal system. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Historically, laws were written in English and were not translated into Bengali until 1987 when the procedure was reversed.[110] Some Dhakaiyas (Locales of Dhaka) & the Bihari population speak Urdu, which was also the language associated with the government prior to separation from Pakistan. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

Religion

After Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan, Secularism was included in the original Constitution of Bangladesh in 1972 as one of the Four State Principles, the others being Democracy, Nationalism and Socialism. In 2010, the High Court upheld the secular principles of the 1972 constitution. Bangladesh follows secular government system in democratic state. HP Pavilion DV7-4053 Laptop Keyboard

However, Bangladesh also follows combined system of state laws and individual religious laws applicable to people of respective religious group.[111] The minority percentage of the population adheres to Hinduism (9.6%).[112] The majority of Muslims are Sunni, although a small number are Twelver Shias or Shias.[113] Bangladesh is the fourth largest Muslim populated state after Indonesia, Pakistan and India. HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard

Some people in Bangladesh practice Sufism, as historically Islam was brought to the region by Sufi saints. Sufi influences in the region go back many centuries.[114] The largest gathering of Muslims in the country is the Bishwa Ijtema, held annually by the Tablighi Jamaat. The Ijtema is the second largest Muslim congregation in the world after the Hajj. Other minority religious groups include Buddhists (0.7%, mostly Theravada), Christians (0.2%, mostly of the Roman Catholic denomination), and Animists (0.1%).[112]  ACER TravelMate 4600 Laptop Keyboard

Bangladesh has a low literacy rate, estimated at 61.3% for males and 52.2% for females in 2010.[1] The educational system in Bangladesh is three-tiered and highly subsidized. The government of Bangladesh operates many schools in the primary, secondary, and higher secondary levels. It also subsidises parts of the funding for many private schools. In the tertiary education sector, the government also funds more than 15 state universities through the University Grants Commission. SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard

The education system is divided into 5 levels: Primary (from grades 1 to 5), Junior Secondary (from grades 6 to 8), Secondary (from grades 9 to 10), Higher Secondary (from grades 11 to 12) and tertiary.[115] The five years of lower secondary education concludes with a Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination but since 2009 it concludes with a Primary Education Closing (PEC) Examination. HP Pavilion dv6-3141ea laptop keyboard

Also earlier Students who pass this examination proceed to four years Secondary or matriculation training, which culminate in a Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination but since 2010 the Primary Education Closing (PEC) passed examinees proceed to three years Junior Secondary, which culminate in a Junior School Certificate (JSC) Examination. Then students who pass this examination proceed to two years Secondary or matriculation training, HP Pavilion dv6-3143sa laptop keyboard

which culminate in a Secondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of Higher Secondary or intermediate training, which culminate in a Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) Examination.[115]Education is mainly offered in Bengali, but English is also commonly taught and used. ACER Aspire 5410 laptop keyboard

A large number of Muslim families send their children to attend part-time courses or even to pursue full-time religious education, which is imparted in Bengali andArabic in madrasahs.[115] TOSHIBA Satellite P300D-14A laptop keyboard

Bangladesh conforms fully to the Education For All (EFA) objectives, the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and international declarations. Article 17 of the Bangladesh Constitution provides that all children between the ages of six and ten years receive a basic education free of charge. HP 633183-001 Laptop Keyboard

Universities in Bangladesh are mainly categorised into three different types: public university (government owned and subsidized), private university (private sector owned universities) and international university (operated and funded by international organizations). Bangladesh has some thirty-four public, sixty-four private and two international universities. HP 636191-001 Laptop Keyboard

National University has the largest enrolment amongst them and University of Dhaka (established 1921) is the oldest university of the country. Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) is the oldest and prominent engineering university in Bangladesh. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

The most famous engineering universities of Bangladesh are Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology(DUET), Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET), Khulna University of Engineering and Technology (KUET), Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology (RUET). TOSHIBA NSK-TK001 Laptop Keyboard

 Shahjalal University of Science and Technology is the first specialized science and technology university of the country. Now Bangladesh has eight science and technology universities. Islamic University of Technology (IUT) is the only international university in engineering fields powered by OIC.East West University, North South University, BRAC University, HP G62-339WM Laptop Keyboard

Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, American International University-Bangladesh are some renowned private universities in this region. Some other Universities are also well known such as Jagannath University (JnU), Rajshahi University,Chittagong University, HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

Jahangirnagar University, Khulna University, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University, Bangladesh Agricultural University etc. Bangladeshi universities are accredited by and affiliated with the University Grants Commission (UGC), a commission created according to the Presidential Order (P.O. No 10 of 1973) of the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.[116] HP 9Z.N4DUQ.001 Laptop Keyboard

Health and education levels remain relatively low, although they have improved recently as poverty (31% at 2010[117]) levels have decreased. Most Bangladeshis continue to live on subsistence farming in rural villages. For those in rural areas, village doctors with little or no formal training constitute 62% of the healthcare providers practising modern medicine and the formally trained providers are occupying a mere 4% of the total health workforce. HP Pavilion DV7T-4100 Laptop Keyboard

A survey conducted by Future Health Systems revealed significant deficiencies in treatment practices of village doctors, with a wide prevalence of harmful and inappropriate drug prescriptions.[118] There are market incentives for accessing health care through informal providers and it is important to understand these markets in order to facilitate collaboration across actors and institutions in order to provide incentives for better performance.[119] HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

A 2007 study of 1000 households in rural Bangladesh found that direct costs (payment to formal and informal health care providers) and indirect costs (loss of earnings associated with workdays lost due to illness) associated with illness were important deterrents to accessing health care from qualified healthcare providers.[118] ATOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

community survey with 6183 individuals in rural Bangladesh found a clear gender difference in treatment-seeking behaviour, with women less likely to seek treatment compared to men.[120] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

The use of skilled birth attendants, however, has risen between 2005 and 2007 by women in all wealth quintiles except the highest quintile.[121] A pilot community empowerment tool, called a health watch, was successfully developed and implemented in south-eastern Bangladesh in order to improve uptake and monitoring of public health services.[122] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

The poor health conditions in Bangladesh is attributed by the lack of healthcare and services provision by the government. The total expenditure on healthcare as a percentage of their GDP was only 3.35% in 2009, according to a World Bank report published in 2010.[123] The number of hospital beds per 10 000 population is 4.[124] Dell Inspiron 2500 Laptop Keyboard

The General government expenditure on healthcare as a percentage of total government expenditure was only 7.9% as of 2009 and the citizens pay most of their health care bills as the out-of-pocket expenditure as a percentage of private expenditure on health is 96.5%.[123] DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard

Malnutrition has been a persistent problem for the poverty-stricken country. The World Bank estimates that Bangladesh is ranked 1st in the world of the number of children suffering from malnutrition[125][126] In Bangladesh, 26% of the population are undernourished[127] and 46% of the children suffers from moderate to severe underweight problem.[128] 43% of children under 5 years old are stunted. ACER TravelMate 3002WTCi Laptop Keyboard

One in five preschool age children are vitamin A deficient and one in two are anemic.[129] Child malnutrition in Bangladesh is amongst the highest in the world. Two-thirds of the children, under the age of five, are under-nourished and about 60% of them, who are under six, are stunted.[130] More than 45 percent of rural families and 76 percent of urban families were below the acceptable caloric intake level.[131] HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Bengali language boasts a rich literary heritage, which Bangladesh shares with the Indian state of West Bengal. The earliest literary text in Bengali is the 8th century Charyapada. Medieval Bengali literature was often either religious (for example,Chandidas), or adapted from other languages (for example, Alaol). Compaq Presario CQ62-227TU laptop keyboard

Bengali literature reached its full expression in the 19th century, with its greatest icons being poets, the national poet Kazi Nazrul Islam, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra, Jasim Uddin, Jibanananda Das, SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard

 Shamsur Rahman, Al Mahmud, Sukanta Bhattacharya, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Michael Madhusudan Dutt and present day Humayun Ahmed, Muhammed Zafar Iqbal. Bangladesh also has a long tradition in folk literature, for example Maimansingha Gitika, Thakurmar Jhuli and stories related to Gopal Bhar, Birbal and Molla Nasiruddin. ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

Film industries

Main article: Cinema of Bangladesh

The Bangladeshi film industry has been based in Bangladesh's capital, Dhaka, since 1956. As of 2004, it produced approximately 100 movies a year, with an average movie budget of about 20,000,000 Bangladeshi taka. The film industry is known as Dhallywood, a portmanteau of the words Dhaka and Hollywood. Bangladesh produces about 80 films a year.[132] Mainstream Hindi films are also quite popular.[133] Lenovo 04W0872 Laptop Keyboard

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Music and Arts

Main articles: Music of Bangladesh and Bangladeshi art

The musical tradition of Bangladesh is lyrics-based (Baniprodhan), with minimal instrumental accompaniment. Numerous musical traditions exist includingGombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya,  Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

varying from one region to the next. Folk music is accompanied by the ektara, an instrument with only one string. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. Bangladesh also has an active heritage in North Indian classical music. Similarly, Bangladeshi dance forms draw from folk traditions, especially those of the tribal groups, as well as the broader Indian dance tradition.[134] SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard

Around 200 daily newspapers are published in Bangladesh, along with more than 500 periodicals. However, regular readership is low at just under 15% of the population.[135] Bangladeshis listen to a variety of local and national radio programs like Bangladesh Betar. FUJITSU Lifebook T4220 Laptop Keyboard

Several private FM radio stations (Radio Foorti,ABC Radio, Radio Today, Radio Amar etc.) are popular among urban youths. International Bengali-language broadcasts include BBC Bangla and Voice of America. The dominant television channel is the state-owned Bangladesh Television, but in the last few years, APPLE A1278 Laptop Keyboard

privately owned channels have developed considerably. Some popular privately owned TV channels are ATN Bangla, Channel i, NTV, Ekushey Television, Desh TV, RTV, Banglavision, Islamic TV, Boishakhi TV, Mohona TV, ATN News, Somoy TV, Independent TV, Channel 9 Bangladesh etc. SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W Laptop Keyboard

Cuisine

The culinary tradition of Bangladesh has close relations to surrounding Bengali and North-East Indian cuisine as well as having its own unique traits. Rice and fish are traditional favourites. Biryani is a favourite dish of Bangladesh and this includes egg biryani, mutton biryani and beef biryani. Bangladeshis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, some common ones being Rôshogolla, Rasmalai, Rôshomalai, chômchôm and kalojam. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Dress

The Sari (shaŗi) is by far the most widely worn dress by Bangladeshi women. A guild of weavers in Dhaka is renowned for producing saris from exquisite Jamdani muslin. The salwar kameez (shaloar kamiz) is also quite popular, especially among the younger females, and in urban areas some women wear western attire. Among men, western attire is more widely adopted. Men also wear the kurta-paejama combination, often on special occasions, and the lungi, a kind of long skirt for men. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

The Muslim holidays of Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha, the Bengali New Year, Independence Day, and Durga Puja by the significant Hindu community of Bangladesh, see the most widespread celebrations in the country. Other major Hindu festivals are Kali Puja, Saraswati Puja, and Krishna Janmashtami; alongside the Buddhist festival of Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth ofGautama Buddha, and Christmas, called Borodin ("Great day"), are all (except Saraswati and Kali Puja) national holidays. SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

Pohela Boishakh, the Bengali new year, is the major festival of Bengali culture and sees widespread festivities. Of the major holidays celebrated in Bangladesh, only Pohela Boishakh comes without any preexisting expectations (specific religious identity, culture of gift-giving, etc.). SONY VGN-FE28H Laptop Keyboard

Unlike holidays like Eid ul-Fitr, where dressing up in lavish clothes has become a norm, or Christmas where exchanging gifts has become an integral part of the holiday, Pohela Boishakh is really about celebrating the simpler, rural roots of the Bengal. As a result, more people can participate in the festivities together without the burden of having to reveal one's class, religion, or financial capacity. Other cultural festivals includeNabonno, and Poush porbon (festival of Poush), both Bengali harvest festivals. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Alongside these are national days like the remembrance of 21 February 1952 Language Movement Day (International Mother Language Day), Independence Day and Victory Day. On Language Movement Day, people congregate at the Shaheed Minar in Dhaka to remember the national heroes of the Bengali Language Movement, and at the Jatiyo Smriti Soudho on Independence Day and Victory Day to remember the national heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War. DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

These occasions are observed with public ceremonies, parades, rallies by citizens, political speeches, fairs, concerts, and various other public and private events celebrating the history and traditions of Bangladesh. TV and radio stations broadcast special programs and patriotic songs. And many schools and colleges organise fairs, festivals, and concerts in which citizens from all levels of society can participate. FUJITSU CP270342-02 Laptop Keyboard

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Bangladesh

Bangladesh has appealing architecture from historic treasures to contemporary landmarks.The architecture of Bangladesh has a long history and is rooted in Bangladesh's culture, religion and history.[136] It has evolved over centuries and assimilated influences from social, religious and exotic communities. The architecture of Bangladesh bears a remarkable impact on the lifestyle, tradition and cultural life of Bangladeshi people. Bangladesh has many architectural relics and monuments dating back thousands of years. DELL KR737 Laptop Keyboard

Cricket is one of the most popular sports in Bangladesh, followed by football. The national cricket team participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999, and the following year was granted elite Test cricket status. But they have struggled to date, recording only three Test match victories: one against Zimbabwe in 2005, the other two in a series win of 2–0 against the West Indies in 2009.[137] SONY VGN-AR390CE laptop keyboard

The team has been more successful in One Day International cricket. In July 2010, they celebrated their first ever win over England in any form of match. Later in 2010, they managed to beat New Zealand for the first time in history. In late 2012, they won a five-match home ODI series 3-2 against a full-strength West Indies National team. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

In 2011, Bangladesh successfully co-hosted the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011 with India and Sri Lanka. In 2012, the country hosted the Micromax Asia Cup. The team beat India and Sri Lanka but failed to keep the reputation in the final game against Pakistan. However, it was the first time Bangladesh had advanced to the final of any major cricket tournament. SONY VAIO VGN-AR500 laptop keyboard

They participated at the 2010 Asian Games in Guangzhou, defeating Afghanistan to claim their Gold Medal in the first ever cricket tournament held in the Asian Games. Kabaddi is a very popular game in Bangladesh, especially in the villages. Often called the 'game of rural Bengal', it is now the National Game of Bangladesh. In some areas Kabaddi is still known as [Ha-Du-Du], SONY VAIO VGN-CS160J/W laptop keyboard

but Ha-Du-Du had no definite rules and was played with different rules in different areas. [Ha-Du-Du] was renamed Kabaddi and given the status of the National Game in 1972. Other popular sports include field hockey, tennis, badminton,handball, basketball, volleyball, chess, shooting, angling. The Bangladesh Sports Control Board regulates 29 different sporting federations. HP Pavilion dv4-1211tu laptop keyboard

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India

India (i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bharat Ganrajya)[c], is a country in South Asia, and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the World Trade Organisation, the Asian Development Bank, the South Asian Regional Co-operation Organisation and the United Nations. SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard

india is also an observer-member of the Organisation of American States, the Arab League[11] and of the Shanghai Co-operation Organisation. It is the seventh-largestcountry by area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracyin the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z laptop keyboard

and the Bay of Bengalon the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;[d] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and theMaldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[12] Four world religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, andIslam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century andadministered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi. GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard

The Indian economy is the world's tenth-largest by nominal GDP and third-largest by purchasing power parity(PPP).[13] Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the fastest-growing major economies; it is considered a newly industrialised country. SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

However, it continues to face the challenges ofpoverty, illiteracy, corruption, malnutrition, inadequate public healthcare, violence against women, andterrorism. A nuclear weapons state and a regional power, it has the third-largest standing army in the world and ranks seventh in military expenditure among nations. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard

India is a federal constitutional republic governed under aparliamentary system consisting of 28 states and 7 union territories. India is a pluralistic, multilingual, andmulti-ethnic society. It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hinduš. The latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River.[14] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), which translates as "the people of the Indus".[15] HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

The geographical term Bharat (pronounced [ˈbʱaːrət̪] ( listen)), which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations.[16] The eponym of Bharat isBharata, a theological figure that Hindu scriptures describe as a legendary emperor of ancient India. Hindustan([ɦɪnd̪ʊˈst̪aːn] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

 ( listen)) was originally a Persian word that meant "Land of the Hindus"; prior to 1947, it referred to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan. It is occasionally used to solely denote India in its entirety.[17][18] The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in South Asia date from approximately 30,000 years ago.[19] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh.[20] Around 7000 BCE, the first known Neolithicsettlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan.[21] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[22] the first urban culture in South Asia;[23] it flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India.[24] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilization engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[23] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

During the period 2000–500 BCE, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from theChalcolithic to the Iron Age.[25] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism,[26] were composed during this period,[27] and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upperGangetic Plain.[25] ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard

Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.[28][26][29] The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

arose during this period.[30] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[25] In southern India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[31] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[31] ACER Aspire 5740 Laptop Keyboard

During the period 230 BCE to 220 CE, Satavahana empire covered much of India. The Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners after the decline of Mauryan Empire. Satavahanas are also credited with furthering Budhism in India including Ajanta caves. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

 In the late Vedic period, around the 5th century BCE, the small chiefdoms of theGanges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas.[32][33] The emerging urbanisation and the orthodoxies of this age also created the religious reform movements ofBuddhism and Jainism,[34] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

both of which became independent religions.[35] Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.[34][36][37] DELL Inspiron 8500 Laptop Keyboard

Jainism came into prominence around the same time during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[38] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal,[39] and both established long-lasting monasteries.[32] Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.[32] The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.[40][41] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

 The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[42][43] Toshiba Satellite A200-1E1 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empireand with West and South-East Asia.[44][45] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[46][32] Toshiba Satellite A105-S271 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

 By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later Indian kingdoms.[47][48] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather than the management of ritual began to assert itself.[49]The renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.[48] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.[48] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The Indian early medieval age, 600 CE to 1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[50] When Harsha ofKannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by theChalukya ruler of the Deccan.[51] ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard

When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[51]When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.[51] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region.[50] During this time, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.[52] The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.[52] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.[53] They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.[53] Indian royalty, bigand small, SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard

and the temples they patronised, drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.[54] Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.[54] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in South-East Asia, GATEWAY M-6846 laptop keyboard

as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Java.[55] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; South-East Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.[55] TOSHIBA 9J.N5682.701 laptop keyboard

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[56] TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s119 laptop keyboard

The sultanate was to control much of North India, and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.[57][58] ACER NSK-H361D laptop keyboard

By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard

thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[59][60] The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.[61] Embracing a strong Shaivitetradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,[62] and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.[61] SONY Vaio PCG-K45 laptop keyboard

n the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers,[63] fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.[64] The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices[65][66] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[67] Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[68] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.[67] IBM ThinkPad T42 2378 laptop keyboard

The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture[69] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[70] caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[68] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[68] resulting in greater patronage of painting, Packard Bell Easynote TK81 laptop keyboard

literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[71] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.[72] TOSHIBA Satellite A205-S5823 laptop keyboard

Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[72] As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.[73] IBM ThinkPad T40p 2373 Laptop Keyboard

By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.[74][75] The East India Company's control of the seas, DELL PK130AF2B00 Laptop Keyboard

greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; both these factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.[76][74][77][78] TOSHIBA G83C0000EA10 Laptop Keyboard

Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[79] India was now no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British empire with raw materials, and many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.[74] TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration, the Company began to more consciously enter non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.[80] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. SONY VAIO VGN-FS550 Laptop Keyboard

These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe.[81][82][83][84] DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

However, disaffection with the Company also grew during this time, and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.[85][86] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and to the direct administration of India by the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[87][88] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.[89][90][91][92] TOSHIBA Satellite A205-S5823 Laptop Keyboard

The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks—many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.[93] There was an increase in the number of large-scalefamines,[94] TOSHIBA NSK-TAJ01 Laptop Keyboard

and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.[95] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.[96]  DELL NSK-DJD01 Laptop Keyboard

The railway network provided critical famine relief,[97] notably reduced the cost of moving goods,[97] and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.[96] After World War I, in which some one million Indians served,[98] a new period began. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

and by the beginnings of a non-violent movement of non-cooperation, of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol.[99] During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.[100] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress's final push for non-cooperation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the bloody partition of the subcontinent into two states: India and Pakistan.[101] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.[102] In the 60 years since, India has had a mixed record of successes and failures.[103] It has remained a democracy with civil liberties, an activist Supreme Court, ACER NSK-AL01D Laptop Keyboard

and a largely independent press.[103] Economic liberalisation, which was begun in the 1990s, has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies,[104] and increased its geopolitical clout. Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.[103] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Yet, India has also been weighed down by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban;[103] by religious and caste-related violence;[105] byMaoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;[106] and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.[107] It has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which escalated into the Sino-Indian War of 1962;[108] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

 and with Pakistan, which flared into wars fought in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999.[108] The India–Pakistan nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998.[109] India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's new nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved.[110] HP Pavilion DV7-4053 Laptop Keyboard

India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent and lies atop the minor Indian tectonic plate, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Australian Plate.[111] India's defining geological processes commenced 75 million years ago when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard

began a north-eastward drift across the then-unformed Indian Ocean that lasted fifty million years.[111] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with, and subduction under, the Eurasian Plate bore aloft the planet's highest mountains, the Himalayas. They abut India in the north and the north-east.[111]  ACER TravelMate 4600 Laptop Keyboard

In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough that has gradually filled with river-borne sediment;[112] it now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[113] To the west lies the Thar Desert, which is cut off by the Aravalli Range.[114] SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard

The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India, which is the oldest and geologically most stable part of India; it extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[115] HP Pavilion dv6-3141ea laptop keyboard

 To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats;[116] the plateau contains the nation's oldest rock formations, some of them over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44' and 35° 30' north latitude[e] and 68° 7' and 97° 25' east longitude.[117] HP Pavilion dv6-3143sa laptop keyboard

India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.[118] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudflats or marshy shores.[118] ACER Aspire 5410 laptop keyboard

Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[119] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient often leads to severe floods and course changes.[120] TOSHIBA Satellite P300D-14A laptop keyboard

 Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[121] and theNarmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[122] Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch TOSHIBA Satellite P300-18M laptop keyboard

of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.[123] India has two archipelagos: theLakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[124] DELL 0NC929 laptop keyboard

The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and wintermonsoons.[125] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[126][127] HP G42-200XX laptop keyboard

The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[125] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, andmontane.[128] GATEWAY M680 laptop keyboard

India lies within the Indomalaya ecozone and contains three biodiversity hotspots.[129] One of 17 megadiverse countries, it hosts 8.6% of all mammalian, 13.7% of all avian, 7.9% of all reptilian, 6% of all amphibian, 12.2% of all piscine, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[130][131] HP 636191-001 Laptop Keyboard

Endemism is high among plants, 33%, and among ecoregions such as the sholaforests.[132] Habitat ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to theconiferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India; the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India; DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[133] Under 12% of India's landmass bears thick jungle.[134] The medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies, is a key Indian tree. The luxuriant pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. TOSHIBA NSK-TK001 Laptop Keyboard

any Indian species descend from taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the Indian plateseparated more than 105 million years before present.[135] Peninsular India's subsequent movementtowards and collision with the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. HP G62-339WM Laptop Keyboard

 Epochal volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago forced a mass extinction.[136] Mammals then entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the rising Himalaya.[133]Thus, while 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians are endemic, HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are.[131] Among them are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.[137] These include the Asiatic lion, theBengal tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which, by ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-laced cattle, nearly went extinct. HP 9Z.N4DUQ.001 Laptop Keyboard

The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[138] HP Pavilion DV7T-4100 Laptop Keyboard

and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.[139] India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and thirteen biosphere reserves,[140] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[141] HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

India is the world's most populous democracy.[142] As a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system,[143] it has sixrecognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40regional parties.[144] The Congress is considered centre-left or "liberal" in Indian political culture, and the BJP centre-right or "conservative". TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP,[145] as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalitions at the centre.[146] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Indira Gandhi, DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977; the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted just over three years. Dell Inspiron 2500 Laptop Keyboard

Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard

won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived: it lasted just under two years.[147] Elections were held again in 1991; no party won an absolute majority. But the Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.[148] ACER TravelMate 3002WTCi Laptop Keyboard

A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996. Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on external support. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition government to complete a five-year term.[149] In the 2004 Indian general elections HP Mini 110-3506tu Laptop Keyboard

, again no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP.  ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from India's communist parties.[150] That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.[151] HP Mini 210-1000 CTO Laptop Keyboard

India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which "majority rule is tempered byminority rights protected by law". SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard

Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and thestates. The government abides by constitutional checks and balances. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950,[152] states in its preamble that India is a sovereign, Lenovo 04W0872 Laptop Keyboard

 socialist, secular, democratic republic.[153] India's form of government, traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states,[154] has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.[155][156] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

India is a federation composed of 28 states and 7 union territories.[172] All states, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the centre through appointed administrators.  Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[173] Since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts. The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into villages. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard

India possesses membership of various international organisations, including the World Trade Organisation, the UN, theCommonwealth of Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement and others. Additionally, India is an observer-member of the Arab League, the Shanghai Co-operation Organisation and the Organisation of American States. FUJITSU Lifebook T4220 Laptop Keyboard

India, like the PRC, is, as a major Asian economic power, is a partner of the South Pacific Islands Forum.

Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relations with most nations. In the 1950s, it strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and played a lead role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[174APPLE A1278 Laptop Keyboard

] In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of neighbouring countries: a peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and an armed intervention to prevent a coup d'état attempt in Maldives. India has tense relations with neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W Laptop Keyboard

Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir, while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from India's support for theindependence of Bangladesh.[175] After waging the 1962 Sino-Indian War and the 1965 war with Pakistan, India pursued close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.[176] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia, India has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played key roles in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organisation. The nation has provided 100,000military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

t participates in the East Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other multilateral forums.[177] India has close economic ties with South America, Asia, and Africa; it pursues a "Look East" policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional security.[178][179] SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.[181] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, SONY VGN-FE28H Laptop Keyboard

considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[182] India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine.[183][184] It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in collaboration with Russia, afifth-generation fighter jet.[185] Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of Vikrant-class aircraft carriers and Arihant-class nuclear submarines.[185] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and military cooperation with the United Statesand the European Union.[186] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.[187] India subsequently signed cooperation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[188] France,[189] the United Kingdom,[190] andCanada.[191] FUJITSU CP270342-02 Laptop Keyboard

The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; with 1.6 million active troops, they compose the world's third-largest military.[192] It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, and the Indian Air Force; auxiliary organisations include the Strategic Forces Command and threeparamilitary groups: the Assam Rifles, the Special Frontier Force, HP 633183-001 Laptop Keyboard

and the Indian Coast Guard.[8] The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83% of GDP.[193] For the fiscal year spanning 2012–2013, US$40.44 billion was increased by 11.6%,[196] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

budgeted.[194] According to a 2008 SIPRI report, India's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion,[195] In 2011, the annual defence budget SONY VAIO VGN-AR500 laptop keyboard

although this does not include funds that reach the military through other branches of government.[197] As of 2012, India is the world's largest arms importer; between 2007 and 2011, it accounted for 10% of funds spent on international arms purchases.[198] Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.[196] SONY VAIO VGN-CS160J/W laptop keyboard

According to the World Bank, as of 2011, the Indian economy is nominally worth US$1.848 trillion;[13] it is the tenth-largest economy by market exchange rates, and is, at US$4.457 trillion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity, or PPP.[199]With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–12,[200] HP Pavilion dv4-1211tu laptop keyboard

India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.[201] However, the country ranks 140th in the world in nominal GDP per capitaand 129th in GDP per capita at PPP.[199] Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics. SONY VGN-FE790 laptop keyboard

Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy;[202] since then it has slowly moved towards a free-market system[203][204] by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.[205]India's recent economic model is largely capitalist.[204] India has been a member of WTO since 1 January 1995.[206] SONY 147859712 laptop keyboard

The 487.6-million worker Indian labour force is the world's second-largest, as of 2011.[8] The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.[172] Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, HP Pavilion DV7-3057nr laptop keyboard

biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, and software.[172] In 2006, the share of external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.[203] In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.68%;[207] In 2011, India was the world's tenth-largest importer and the nineteenth-largest exporter.[208] Major exports include petroleum products, TOSHIBA Satellite A300-1DG laptop keyboard

textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and leather manufactures.[172] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.[172] Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.[209] ACER TravelMate 6252 laptop keyboard

Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007,[203] India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.[210] Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030.[211] Though ranking 51st in global competitiveness, India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, ThinkPad Edge E525 laptop keyboard

24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies, as of 2010.[212] With 7 of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India, the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States, as of 2009.[213] India's consumer market, currently the world's eleventh-largest, is expected to become fifth-largest by 2030.[211] SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard

India's telecommunication industry, the world's fastest-growing, added 227 million subscribers during the period 2010–11.[214] Its automotive industry, the world's second fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–10,[215]and exports by 36% during 2008–09.[216] Power capacity is 250 gigawatts, HP Pavilion dv6-2164ca laptop keyboard

of which 8% is renewable. The Pharmaceutical industry in India is among the significant emerging markets for global pharma industry. The Indian pharmaceutical market is expected to reach $48.5 billion by 2020. India's R & D spending constitutes 60% of Biopharmaceutical industry.[217][218] SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard

India is among the top 12 Biotech destinations of the world.[219] [220] At the end of 2011, Indian IT Industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billion equaling 7.5% of Indian GDP and contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.[221] DELL Inspiron 1731 laptop keyboard

Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges. India contains the largest concentration of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of US$1.25 per day,[222] the proportion having decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.[223] Compaq Presario CQ62-227TU laptop keyboard

Half of the children in India are underweight,[224] and 46% of children under the age of three suffer from malnutrition.[222] The Mid-Day Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates.[225] Since 1991,economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[226] ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

Corruption in India is perceived to have increased significantly,[227]with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since independence to be US$462 billion.[228] Driven by growth, India's nominal GDP per capita has steadily increased from US$329 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,265 in 2010, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

and is estimated to increase to US$2,110 by 2016; however, it has always remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future.[229]  DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045.[230] During the next four decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest-growing major economy until 2050.[230] DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-age population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle class.[230] DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.[231] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Citing persistent inflation pressures, weak public finances, limited progress on fiscal consolidation and ineffectiveness of the government, rating agency Fitch revised India's Outlook to Negative from Stable on 18 June 2012.[232] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Another credit rating agency S&P had warned previously that a slowing GDP growth and political roadblocks to economic policy-making could put India at the risk of losing its investment grade rating.[233] However, Moody didn't revise its outlook on India keeping it stable,[234] but termed the national government as the "single biggest drag" on the business activity.[235] IBM 39T0550 Laptop Keyboard

With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census,[5] India is the world's second-most populous country. Its population grew at 1.76% per annum during 2001–2011,[5] down from 2.13% per annum in the previous decade (1991–2001).[236] The human sex ratio, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.[5] The median age was 24.9 in the 2001 census.[8] The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361.1 million people.[237] Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.[238] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

India continues to face several public health-related challenges.[239][240] According to the World Health Organisation, 900,000 Indians die each year from drinking contaminated water or breathing polluted air.[241] There are around 50 physicians per 100,000 Indians.[242] The number of Indians living in urban areas has grown by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.[243] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Yet, in 2001, over 70% lived in rural areas.[244][245] According to the 2001 census, there are 27 million-plus cities in India;[243] among them Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad are the most populous metropolitan areas. The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.[5]Kerala is the most literate state;[246] Bihar the least.[247] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

India is home to two major language families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language families. India has no national language.[248] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government.[249][250] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";[251] it is important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 21 "scheduled languages". DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

The Constitution of India recognises 212 scheduledtribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population.[252] The 2001 census reported that Hinduism, with over 800 million adherents (80.5% of the population), was the largest religion in India; it is followed by Islam (13.4%),HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard

 Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%), Jainism(0.4%), Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Bahá'í Faith.[253] India has the world's largest Hindu, Sikh, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Bahá'í populations, and has thethird-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non-Muslim majority country.[254][255] HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[256] During the Vedic period (c. 1700–500 BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhárma,kárma, yóga, and mokṣa, were established.[15] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

 India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nation's major religions.[257] The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads,[258] the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,[257] and by Buddhist philosophy.[259] DELL KR737 Laptop Keyboard

Art and architecture

Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.[260] Vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavours.Vastu shastra, literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan,[261] explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings;[262] SONY VGN-AR390CE laptop keyboard

it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.[263] As applied in Hindu temple architecture, it is influenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the Vastu-Purusha mandala, IBM 39T0550 Laptop Keyboard

a square that embodied the "absolute".[264] The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."[265] Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.[266] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The earliest literary writings in India, composed between 1400 BCE and 1200 CE, were in the Sanskrit language.[267][268] Prominent works of this Sanskrit literature include epics such as the Mahābhārata and the Ramayana, the dramas of Kālidāsa such as the Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya.[269][270][271] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

Kamasutra, the famous book about sexual intercourse also originated in India. Developed between 600 BCE and 300 CE in South India, the Sangam literature, consisting of 2,381 poems, is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature.[272][273][274][275] From the 14th to the 18th centuries, IBM 39T0550 Laptop Keyboard

India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabīr, Tulsīdās, and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.[276] LENOVO MP-08F53US-686 laptop keyboard

 In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the works of Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore.[277] SONY VAIO VGN-N21Z/W laptop keyboard

Performing Arts Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles. Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northernHindustani and southern Carnatic schools.[278] Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter. Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Among the better-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal and Jharkhand, sambalpuri of Odisha, ghoomar of Rajasthan, and the lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: SONY VAIO VGN-CS13G/Q laptop keyboard

bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Odisha, and thesattriya of Assam.[279] Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[280] HP G72-b15EB laptop keyboard

Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, tamasha of Maharashtra, burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[281]  DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard

Motion Pictures

The Indian film industry produces the world's most-watched cinema.[282] Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Hindi, Kannada,Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu languages.[283] HP Mini 110-1113NR laptop keyboard

South Indian cinema attracts more than 75% of national film revenue.[284] Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication, and had slow expansion for more than two decades.[285] The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in 1990s and, since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped popular culture of Indian society.[286] HP Mini 210-1084TU Laptop Keyboard

Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that as of 2012 there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite and/or cable connections, compared to other forms of mass media such as press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).[287]  HP G61-401SA Laptop Keyboard

Traditional Indian society is defined by a relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in the Indian subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis, or "castes".[288] HP Pavilion G60-230 Laptop Keyboard

 India declared untouchability illegal in 1947 and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives, albeit numerous reports suggest that many Dalits ("ex–Untouchables") and other low castes in rural areas continue to live in segregation and facepersecution and discrimination.[289][290][291] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard

Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[292] TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family members.[293] Marriage is thought to be for life,[293] and the divorce rate is extremely low.[294] Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; more than half of women in India wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.[295] DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin; among them are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal, Navaratri, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi. India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories: Republic Day, Independence Day, ACER 9Z.N3K82.01D laptop keyboard

and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Traditional Indian dress varies in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors, including climate and faith. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi for men. HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard

Stitched clothes, such as the shalwar kameez for women and kurta–pyjama combinations or European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.[296] Use of delicate jewellery, modelled on real flowers worn in ancient India, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000 years; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans.[297] HP Pavilion G6-1B79US Laptop Keyboard

Indian cuisine features an unsurpassed reliance on herbs and spices, with dishes often calling for the nuanced usage of a dozen or more condiments;[298] it is also known for its tandoori preparations. HP 416416-001 Laptop Keyboard

The tandoor, a clay oven used in India for almost 5,000 years, grills meats to an "uncommon succulence" and produces the puffy flatbread known as naan.[299] The staple foods are wheat (predominantly in the north),[300] rice (especially in the south and the east), and lentils.[301] HP CT1A Laptop Keyboard

Many spices that have worldwide appeal are native to the Indian subcontinent,[302] while chili pepper, native to the Americas and introduced by thePortuguese, is widely used by Indians.[303] Āyurveda, a system of traditional medicine, used six rasas and three guṇas to help describe comestibles.[304] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Over time, as Vedic animal sacrifices were supplanted by the notion of sacred-cow inviolability, vegetarianism became associated with high religious status and grew increasingly popular,[305] a trend aided by the rise of Buddhist, Jain, and bhakti Hindu norms.[306] TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

India has the world's highest concentration of vegetarians: a 2006 survey found that 31% of Indians were lacto vegetarian, and another 9% were ovo-lacto vegetarianism.[306] Common traditional eating customs include meals taken on or near the floor, caste and gender-segregated dining,[307][308] and a lack of cutlery in favour of the right hand or a piece of roti. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

In India, several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular, among them kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts, such as kalarippayattu, musti yuddha, silambam, and marma adi, originated in India. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are the highest forms of government recognition for athletic achievement; the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching. FUJITSU Lifebook T4220 Laptop Keyboard

Chess, commonly held to have originated in India aschaturaṅga, is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters.[309][310] Pachisi, from which parcheesi derives, SONY VAIO VGN-CR520E Laptop Keyboard

was played on a giant marble court by Akbar.[311] The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other Indian tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.[312] India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the Olympics, SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

the World Shooting Championships, and the Commonwealth Games.[313][314] Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton,[315] boxing,[316] and wrestling.[317] Football is popular in West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern states.[318]  IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

Field hockey in India is administered by Hockey India. The Indian national hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and have, as of 2012, taken eight gold, one silver, and two bronze Olympic medals, making it the sport's most successful team. India has also played a major role in popularizing Cricket, TOSHIBA Equium A100 Series Laptop Keyboard

thus cricket is by far the most popular sport of India; theIndian national cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 Cricket World Cup events, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India, or BCCI; the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, HP Mini 210-1103TU Laptop Keyboard

the Irani Trophy, and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy are domestic competitions. The BCCI conducts a Twenty20 competition known as the Indian Premier League. India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games; the 1987, 1996, and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments; the 2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy; ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

the 2010 Hockey World Cup; and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Chennai Open, the Mumbai Marathon, the Delhi Half Marathon, and the Indian Masters. The firstIndian Grand Prix featured in late 2011.[319] India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games. An example of this dominance is thebasketball competition where Team India won three out of four tournaments to date.[320]  HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

East Timor

East Timor (i/ˌiːst ˈtiːmɔr/) or Timor-Leste (/tiˈmɔr ˈlɛʃteɪ/), officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia.[6] It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands ofAtauro and Jaco, and Oecusse, an exclave on the northwestern side of the island, within Indonesian West Timor. The country's size is about 15,410 km2 (5,400 sq mi).[7] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

East Timor was colonised by Portugal in the 16th century, and was known as Portuguese Timor until Portugal's decolonisation of the country. In late 1975, East Timor declared its independence, but later that year was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesia's 27th province the following year.  DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

In 1999, following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination, Indonesia relinquished control of the territory and East Timor became the first new sovereign state of the 21st century on May 20, 2002. East Timor is one of only two predominantly Roman Catholic countries in East Asia, the other being the Philippines. DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

East Timor has a lower-middle-income economy.[8] It continues to suffer the aftereffects of a decades-longindependence struggle against Indonesia, which damaged infrastructure and displaced thousands of civilians. It is placed 134th by Human Development Index (HDI). Nonetheless it is expected to have the sixth largest GDP growth in the world for 2013.[9] DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) official short form in English and all other languages isTimor-Leste (codes: TLS & TL), which has been adopted by the United Nations,[10] the European Union,[11] and the national standards organisations of France (AFNOR), the United States of America (ANSI),[12] United Kingdom (BSI), Germany (DIN) and Sweden (SIS). DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

It is believed that descendants from at least three waves of migration still live in East Timor. The first were related to the principal Australoid indigenous groups of New Guinea and Australia, and arrived before 40,000 years ago. Around 3000 BC, Austronesians migrated to Timor, and are thought to be associated with the development of agriculture on the island.[citation needed] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

 Thirdly, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina.[13]Before colonialism Timor was included in Chinese and Indian trading networks, being in the 14th century an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, IBM 39T0550 Laptop Keyboard

honey and wax. It was the relative abundance of sandalwood in Timor that attracted European explorers to the island in the early 16th century.[14] During that time, European explorers reported that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms.[citation needed] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

The Portuguese established outposts in Timor and Maluku. Effective European occupation of a small part of the territory began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded and the colony ofPortuguese Timor declared.[16] A definitive border between the Dutch colonised western half of the island and the Portuguese colonised eastern half of the island was established by thePermanent Court of Arbitration of 1914,[17] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

and it remains the international boundary between the successor states East Timor and Indonesia. For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a neglected trading post until the late nineteenth century, with minimal investment in infrastructure, health, and education. HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

 Sandalwood remained the main export crop with coffee exports becoming significant in the mid-nineteenth century. In places where Portuguese rule was asserted, it tended to be brutal and exploitative.[18] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

At the beginning of the twentieth century, a faltering home economy prompted the Portuguese to extract greater wealth from its colonies, which was met with East Timorese resistance.[18] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

During World War II, the Japanese occupied Dili, and the mountainous interior became the scene of a guerrilla campaign, known as the Battle of Timor. Waged by Allied forces and East Timorese volunteers against the Japanese, the struggle resulted in the deaths of between 40,000 and 70,000 East Timorese.[19] Following the end of the war, Portuguese control was reinstated. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

The decolonisation process instigated by the 1974 Portuguese revolution saw Portugal effectively abandon the colony of East Timor. A civil war between supporters of East Timorese political parties, the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor (Fretilin) and the Timorese Democratic Union (UDT), HP Mini 210-1109TU Laptop Keyboard

broke out in 1975 as the UDT attempted a coup which Fretilin resisted with the help of local Portuguese military.[20] Independence was unilaterally declared on November 28, 1975. The Indonesian government was fearful of an independent communist state within the Indonesian archipelago, and at the height of the Cold War, Western governments were supportive of Indonesia's position. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Indonesian military launched a full-scale invasion of East Timor in December 1975. Indonesia declared East Timor as its 27th province on July 17, 1976.[21] The UN Security Council opposed the invasion and the territory's nominal status in the UN remained "non-self-governing territory under Portuguese administration." DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia's occupation of East Timor was marked by violence and brutality. A detailed statistical report prepared for theCommission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor cited a minimum bound of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period 1974–1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 "excess" deaths from hunger and illness.[22] DELL KR737 Laptop Keyboard

The East Timorese guerrilla force, Falintil, fought a campaign against the Indonesian forces from 1975–1999. The 1991 Dili Massacrewas a turning point for the independence cause internationally, and an East Timor solidarity movement grew in Portugal, Australia, and the United States. IBM 39T0550 Laptop Keyboard

Following the resignation of Indonesian President Suharto, a UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia and Portugal allowed for UN-supervised popular referendum in August 1999. The resulting clear vote for independence was met with a punitive campaign of violence by East Timorese pro-integration militia with the support of elements of the Indonesian military. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

An Australian-led international peacekeeping force, International Force for East Timor (INTERFET), was sent (with Indonesian permission) until order was restored. The administration of East Timor was taken over by the UN through the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) in October 1999.[23] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

 The INTERFET deployment ended in February 2000 with the transfer of military command to the UN.[24] By May 2002, over 205,000 refugees had returned,[25] and East Timorese independence was formalised on May 20, 2002 with Xanana Gusmão sworn in as the country's first President. East Timor became a member of the UN on September 27, 2002. IBM 39T0550 Laptop Keyboard

The following year, Gusmão declined another presidential term and in the build-up to the April 2007 presidential elections there were renewed outbreaks of violence. José Ramos-Horta was elected President in the May 2007 election.[26] Ramos-Horta was critically injured in an attempted assassination in February 2008. Prime Minister Gusmão also faced gunfire separately but escaped unharmed. Australian reinforcements were immediately sent to help keep order.[27] LENOVO MP-08F53US-686 laptop keyboard

In 2006, the United Nations sent in security forces to restore order when unrest and factional fighting forced 15 percent of the population (155,000 people) to flee their homes. In March 2011, the UN handed-off operational control of the police force to the East Timor authorities.[28] The United Nations ended its peacekeeping mission on 31 December 2012.[29]  SONY VAIO VGN-N21Z/W laptop keyboard

Located in Southeast Asia,[30] the island of Timor is part of the Maritime Southeast Asia, and is the largest and easternmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. To the north of the island are the Ombai Strait, Wetar Strait and the greater Banda Sea. TheTimor Sea separates the island from Australia to the south, and the Indonesian Province of East Nusa Tenggara lies to East Timor’s west. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Much of the country is mountainous, and its highest is Tatamailau (also known as Mount Ramelau) at 2,963 meters (9,721 ft).The climate is tropical and generally hot and humid. It is characterised by distinct rainy and dry seasons. The capital, largest city and main port is Dili, and the second-largest city is the eastern town of Baucau. East Timor lies between latitudes 8° and 10°S, and longitudes 124° and 128°E. SONY VAIO VGN-CS13G/Q laptop keyboard

The easternmost area of East Timor consists of the Paitchau (de) Range and the Iralalaro (de) area, which contains the county’s first conservation area, the Nino Konis Santana National Park.[31] It contains the last remaining tropical dryforested area within the country. It hosts a number of unique plant and animal species and is sparsely populated.[32] The northern coast is characterised by a number of coral reef systems that have been determined to be at risk.[33] HP G72-b15EB laptop keyboard

The head of state of East Timor is the President of East Timor, who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. Although the role is largely symbolic, the president does have veto power over certain types of legislation. Following elections, the president appoints the leader of the majority party or majority coalition as the Prime Minister of East Timor. As head of government, the prime minister presides over the Council of State or cabinet.  DELL 0PVDG3 laptop keyboard

The unicameral East Timorese parliament is the National Parliament or Parlamento Nacional, whose members are elected by popular vote to a five-year term. The number of seats can vary from a minimum of fifty-two to a maximum of sixty-five. The East Timorese constitution was modelled on that of Portugal. The country is still in the process of building its administration and governmental institutions. HP Mini 110-1113NR laptop keyboard

Government departments include the Policia Nacional de Timor-Leste (police), East Timor Ministry for State and Internal Administration, Civil Aviation Division of Timor Leste and Immigration Department of Timor Leste. HP Mini 210-1084TU Laptop Keyboard

The Timor Leste Defence Force (often F-FDTL) is the military body responsible for the defence of East Timor. The F-FDTL was established in February 2001 and comprised two small infantry battalions, a small naval component and several supporting units.  HP G61-401SA Laptop Keyboard

The F-FDTL's primary role is to protect East Timor from external threats. It also has an internal security role, which overlaps with that of the Policia Nacional de Timor Leste (PNTL). This overlap has led to tensions between the services, which have been exacerbated by poor morale and lack of discipline within the F-FDTL. HP Pavilion G60-230 Laptop Keyboard

The F-FDTL's problems came to a head in 2006 when almost half the force was dismissed following protests over discrimination and poor conditions. The dismissal contributed to a general collapse of both the F-FDTL and PNTL in May and forced the government to request foreign peacekeepers to restore security. The F-FDTL is currently being rebuilt with foreign assistance and has drawn up a long-term force development plan. SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard

East Timor has a market economy, that formerly depended upon exports of a few commodities such as coffee, marble,oil and sandalwood.[36] East Timor’s economy grew by about 10% in 2011, and at a similar rate in 2012.[37] TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

Timor now has revenue from offshore oil and gas reserves, but little of it has gone to develop villages, which still rely on subsistence farming.[38] Nearly half the population lives in extreme poverty.[38] Widespread corruption, unchecked by a weak judicial system, is a considerable drag on the economy.[39] DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

The Timor-Leste Petroleum Fund was established in 2005, and by 2011 it had reached a worth of US$8.7 billion.[40]East Timor is labelled by the International Monetary Fund as the "most oil-dependent economy in the world".[41]The Petroleum Fund pays for nearly all of the government's annual budget, which has increased from $70 million in 2004 to $1.3 billion in 2011, with a $1.8 billion proposal for 2012.[40] HP 416416-001 Laptop Keyboard

The economy is dependent on government spending and, to a lesser extent, assistance from international donors.[42]Private sector development has lagged due to human capital shortages, infrastructure weakness, an incomplete legal system, and an inefficient regulatory environment.[42] After petroleum, the second largest export is coffee, which generates about $10 million a year.[42] Starbucks is a major purchaser of East Timorese coffee.[43] HP CT1A Laptop Keyboard

According to data gathered in the 2010 census, 87.7% of urban and 18.9% of rural households have electricity, for an overall average of 36.7%.[44] TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

The agriculture sector employs 80% of the active population.[45] In 2009, about 67,000 households grew coffee in East Timor, with a large proportion being poor.[45] Currently, the gross margins are about $120 per hectare, with returns per labor-day of about $3.70.[45] There are 11,000 household growing mungbeans as of 2009, most of them subsistence farmers.[45] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

The country was ranked 169th overall and last in the East Asia and Pacific region by the Doing Business 2013 report by the World Bank. The country fared particularly poorly in the 'registering property', 'enforcing contracts' and 'resolving insolvency' categories, ranking last worldwide in all three.[46] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

The Portuguese colonial administration granted concessions to Oceanic Exploration Corporation to develop petroleum and natural gas deposits in the waters southeast of Timor. However, this was curtailed by the Indonesian invasion in 1976.[citation needed] The resources were divided between Indonesia and Australia with the Timor Gap Treaty in 1989.[47] East Timor inherited no permanent maritime boundaries when it attained independence.[citation needed] HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

repudiating the Timor Gap Treaty as illegal. A provisional agreement (the Timor Sea Treaty, signed when East Timor became independent on May 20, 2002) defined a Joint Petroleum Development Area (JPDA), and awarded 90% of revenues from existing projects in that area to East Timor and 10% to Australia.[48] FUJITSU Lifebook T4220 Laptop Keyboard

A 2005 agreement between the governments of East Timor and Australia mandated that both countries put aside their dispute over maritime boundaries, and that East Timor would receive 50% of the revenues from the resource exploitation in the area (estimated at A$26 billion or about US$20 billion over the lifetime of the project)[49] from the Greater Sunrise development.[50] SONY VAIO VGN-CR520E Laptop Keyboard

In 2007, a bad harvest led to deaths in several parts of East Timor. In November 2007, eleven subdistricts still needed food supplied by international aid.[51]

There are no patent laws in East Timor.[52] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

The population of East Timor is about 1,143,667.[6] The population is especially concentrated in the area around Dili.[citation needed]

The word Maubere, formerly used by the Portuguese to refer to native East Timorese and often employed as synonymous with the illiterate and uneducated, was adopted by Fretilin as a term of pride.[54]  IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

They consist of a number of distinct ethnic groups, most of whom are of mixed Malayo-Polynesian and Melanesian/Papuan descent.[citation needed] The largest Malayo-Polynesian ethnic groups are the Tetum[55] (100,000), primarily in the north coast and around Dili; the Mambae (80,000), TOSHIBA Equium A100 Series Laptop Keyboard

in the central mountains; the Tukudede (63,170), in the area around Maubara and Liquiçá; the Galoli(50,000), between the tribes of Mambae and Makasae; the Kemak (50,000) in north-central Timor island; and the Baikeno (20,000), in the area around Pante Macassar.[citation needed] HP Mini 210-1103TU Laptop Keyboard

The main tribes of predominantly Papuan origin include the Bunak (50,000), in the central interior of Timor island; the Fataluku(30,000), at the eastern tip of the island near Lospalos; and the Makasae, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

toward the eastern end of the island.[citation needed] As a result of interracial marriage during was common the Portuguese era, there is a population of people of mixed East Timorese and Portuguese origin, known in Portuguese as mestiços. There is a small Chinese minority, most of whom are Hakka. Many Chinese left in the mid-1970s.[56]  HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

According to the 2010 census, 96.9% of the population is Catholic, 2.2% is Protestant or Evangelical, 0.3% is Muslim, while 0.5% practise some other or no religion.[57] In rural areas, Catholicism is practised along with local traditions.[58] The number of churches has grown from 100 in 1974 to over 800 in 1994.[59] SONY VAIO VGN-AR230G laptop keyboard

The principles of freedom of religion and separation of state and church are enshrined in the section 45, comma 1 of the East Timorese constitution.[60] Upon independence, East Timor became one of only two predominantly Roman Catholic countries in Asia (along with the Philippines), although nearby parts of eastern Indonesia also have Catholic majorities, including West Timor and Flores. SONY VAIO VGN-AR250G laptop keyboard

The Roman Catholic Church divides East Timor into three dioceses: the Diocese of Díli, the Diocese of Baucau and the Diocese of Maliana.[61] Church membership grew considerably under Indonesian rule, as Indonesia's state ideology Pancasila does not recognise traditional beliefs and requires all citizens to believe in God.[citation needed] The constitution acknowledges "the participation of the Catholic Church in the process of national liberation" of East Timor.[60] SONY VAIO VGN-AR270 laptop keyboard

East Timor's two official languages are Portuguese and Tetum. Tetum belongs to the Austronesian family of languages spoken throughout Southeast Asia.[62] SONY VAIO VGN-CR29XN laptop keyboard

The 2010 census found that the most commonly spoken mother tongues were Tetum Prasa (mother tongue for 36.6% of the population), Mambai (12.5%), Makasai (9.7%), Tetum Terik (6.0%), Baikenu (5.9%), Kemak (5.9%), Bunak (5.3%), Tokodede (3.7%),Fataluku (3.6%). Other indigenous languages largely accounted for the remaining 10.9%, while Portuguese was spoken natively by just under 600 people.[63] SONY 147859712 laptop keyboard

Under Indonesian rule the use of Portuguese was banned, and only Indonesian was allowed to be used in government offices, schools and public business.[64] During the Indonesian occupation, Tetum and Portuguese were important unifying elements for the East Timorese people in opposing Javanese culture.[65] SONY VAIO VGN-NW100 laptop keyboard

 It was adopted as one of the two official languages for this reason and as a link to nations in other parts of the world. It is now being taught and promoted with the help of Brazil, Portugal, and the Latin Union.[citation needed] SONY Vaio VGN-AW110J laptop keyboard

Indonesian and English are defined as working languages under the Constitution in the Final and Transitional Provisions, without setting a final date. Aside from Tetum, Ethnologue lists the following indigenous languages: SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard

 Adabe, Baikeno, Bunak, Fataluku, Galoli, Habun, Idaté, Kairui-Midiki, Kemak, Lakalei, Makasae,Makuv’a, Mambae, Nauete, Tukudede, Waima’a.[66] It is estimated that English is understood by 31.4% of the population. 23.5% speak, read and write Portuguese, which is up significantly from less than 5% in the 2006 UN Development Report.[67][68] IBM ThinkPad T40p 2378 laptop keyboard

East Timor is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, and a member of the Latin Union.[69]

According to the Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, there are six endangered languages in East Timor: Adabe, Habu, Kairui-Midiki, Maku'a, Naueti,Waima'a.[70] HP Pavilion tx1340ea laptop keyboard

The culture of East Timor reflects numerous influences, including Portuguese, Roman Catholic, and Indonesian, on the indigenous Austronesian and Melanesiancultures of Timor. East Timorese culture is heavily influenced by Austronesian legends. For example, East Timorese creation myth has it that an aging crocodile transformed into the island of Timor as part of a debt repayment to a young boy who had helped the crocodile when it was sick.[71] HP Pavilion dv6-2053eo laptop keyboard

As a result of that transformation, the island is shaped like a crocodile and the boy's descendants are the native East Timorese who inhabit the island. The phrase "leaving the crocodile" refers to the pained exile of East Timorese from their island. HP Mini 110-3115sg laptop keyboard

There is also a strong tradition of poetry in the country. Prime Minister Xanana Gusmão, for example, is a distinguished poet. As for architecture, some Portuguese-style buildings can be found, along with the traditional totem houses of the eastern region. These are known as uma lulik (sacred houses) in Tetum, and lee teinu (houses with legs) in Fataluku. Craftsmanship is also widespread, as is the weaving of traditional scarves or tais. ACER 9Z.N3K82.01D laptop keyboard

Sports organisations joined by East Timor include the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), the International Badminton Federation (IBF), joined the Union Cycliste Internationale, the International Weightlifting Federation, the International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF), and East Timor's national football team joined FIFA. East Timorese athletes competed in the 2003 Southeast Asian Games held 2003. HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard

In the 2003 ASEAN Paralympics Games, East Timor won a bronze medal. In the Athens 2004 Olympic Games, East Timorese athletes participated in athletics, weightlifting and boxing. East Timor won three medals in Arnis at the 2005 Southeast Asian Games. East Timor competed in the first Lusophony Games, and in October 2008, the country earned its first international points in a FIFA match with a 2–2 draw against Cambodia.[72] HP Pavilion G6-1B79US Laptop Keyboard

The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 58.3%, up from just 37.6% in 2001.[73] Illiteracy is higher among women.[74] Illiteracy was at 95% at the end of Portuguese rule.[75] In 2006, 10%–30% of primary-school age children did not attend school.[76] DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard

The country has the National University of East Timor. Since the departure of the Portuguese, schools have increased from 50 to more than 800. There are also four colleges.[59] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Since independence, both Indonesian and Tetum have lost ground as mediums of instruction: while in 2001 only 8.4% of primary school and 6.8% of secondary school students attended a Portuguese-medium school, ACER TravelMate 4050 Laptop Keyboard

by 2005 this had increased to 81.6% for primary and 46.3% for secondary schools.[77] Indonesian formerly played a considerable role in education, being used by 73.7% of all secondary school students as a medium of instruction, but by 2005 it was used by most schools only in Baucau, Manatutoas well as the capital district.[77] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Life expectancy at birth was at 60.7 in 2007.[74] The fertility rate is at six births per woman.[74] Healthy life expectancy at birth was at 55 years in 2007.[74]Government expenditure on health was at US$150 (PPP) per person in 2006.[74] Many people in East Timor lack safe drinking water.[76] There were two hospitals and 14 village healthcare facilities in 1974. By 1994 there were 11 hospitals and 330 healthcare centres.[59] SONY Vaio PCG-K215Z Laptop Keyboard

The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for East Timor is 370. This is compared with 928.6 in 2008 and 1016.3 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 60 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 48.[78] In Timor-Leste the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 8 and lifetime risk of death for pregnant women is 1 in 44.[79] ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard

Because of a Cuban-East Timorese doctor-training programme initiated 2003, by 2015 East Timor will have more doctors per capita than any other country in south-east Asia.[80] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia occupied East Timor from December 1975 to October 1999. After centuries of Portuguese colonial rule in East Timor, a 1974 coup in Portugal led to decolonization among its former colonies, creating instability in East Timor and leaving its future uncertain. After a small-scale civil war, the pro-independence FRETILIN declared victory in the capital city of Dili and declared an independent East Timor on 28 November 1975. SONY Vaio PCG-K315Z Laptop Keyboard

Claiming its assistance had been requested by East Timorese leaders, Indonesian military forces invaded on 7 December and by 1979 had all but destroyed armed resistance to the occupation. Following a controversial "Popular Assembly" which many said was not a genuine act of self-determination, Indonesia declared the territory a province of Indonesia. SONY Vaio PCG-K25 Laptop Keyboard

For twenty-four years the Indonesian government subjected the people of East Timor to extrajudicial executions, routine and systematic torture, massacres and deliberate starvation. The 1991 Santa Cruz Massacre caused outrage around the world, and reports of other such killings were numerous. Resistance to Indonesian rule remained strong;[1] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

in 1996 theNobel Peace Prize was awarded to two men from East Timor, Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo and José Ramos-Horta, for their ongoing efforts to peacefully end the occupation. A 1999 vote to determine East Timor's future resulted in an overwhelming majority in favor of independence, and in 2002 East Timor became an independent nation. The Commission for Reception, HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard

Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor estimated the number of deaths during the occupation from famine and violence to be between 90,800 and 202,600 including between 17,600 and 19,600 violent deaths or disappearances, out of a 1999 population of approximately 823,386. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.[2][3][4] Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

Immediately after the invasion, the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council passed resolutions condemning Indonesia's actions and calling for immediate withdrawal. The governments of the United States, Australia, and United Kingdom were supportive of Indonesia throughout the occupation. Australia and Indonesia were the only nations in the world to recognise East Timor as a province of Indonesia, HP G62-130EV Laptop Keyboard

and soon afterwards began negotiations to divide resources found in the Timor Gap. Other governments, including Japan, Canada and Malaysia, also supported the Indonesian government. The invasion and suppression of East Timor's independence movement, however, caused great harm to Indonesia's reputation and international credibility.[5] ACER Aspire 5535 Laptop Keyboard

After the 1999 vote for independence, paramilitary groups working with the Indonesian military undertook a final wave of violence during which most of the country's infrastructure was destroyed. The Australian led International Force for East Timorrestored order and following the departure of Indonesian forces from East Timor, HP Pavilion dv3-2360ee Laptop Keyboard

the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor administered the territory for two years, establishing a Serious Crimes Unit to investigate and prosecute crimes committed during 1999. Its limited scope and the small number of sentences delivered by Indonesian courts have caused numerous observers to call for an international tribunal for East Timor.[6][7] GATEWAY M-6846 Laptop Keyboard

The Portuguese first arrived in Timor in the 16th century, and in 1702 East Timor came under Portuguese colonial administration.[8] Portuguese rule was tenuous until the island was divided with the Dutch Empire in 1860.[9] A significant battleground during the Pacific War, East Timor was occupied by 20,000 Japanese troops. The fighting helped prevent a Japanese occupation of Australia, but resulted in 60,000 East Timorese deaths.[10]

SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

A 1959 revolt in East Timor against the Portuguese was not endorsed by the Indonesian government.[11] A 1962 United Nations document notes: "the government of Indonesia has declared that it maintains friendly relations with Portugal and has no claim to Portuguese Timor...".[12] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

These assurances continued after Suhartotook power in 1965. An Indonesian official declared in December 1974: "Indonesia has no territorial ambition ... Thus there is no question of Indonesia wishing to annex Portuguese Timor."[13] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In 1974, a coup in Lisbon caused significant changes in Portugal's relationship to its colony in Timor.[14] The power shift in Europe invigorated movements for independence in colonies like Mozambique and Angola, and the new Portuguese government began a decolonization process for East Timor. The first of these was an opening of the political process.[15] COMPAQ Presario CQ41-204TX Laptop Keyboard

When East Timorese political parties were first legalised in April 1974, three groupings emerged as major players in the postcolonial landscape. The União Democrática Timorense (Timorese Democratic Union, or UDT), was formed in May by a group of wealthy landowners. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Initially dedicated to preserving East Timor as a protectorate of Portugal, in September UDT announced its support for independence.[16] A week later, the Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente(Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor, or FRETILIN) appeared. Initially organised as the ASDT (Associacão Social Democrata Timorense), the group endorsed "the universal doctrines of socialism", as well as "the right to independence".[17] HP Pavilion DV6-1030us Laptop Keyboard

As the political process grew more tense, however, the group changed its name and declared itself "the only legitimate representative of the people".[18] The end of May saw the creation of a third party, Associacão Popular Democratica Timorense (Timorese Popular Democratic Association, or APODETI). HP Mini 210-1015TU Laptop Keyboard

Advocating East Timor's integration with Indonesia and originally named Associacão Integraciacao de Timor Indonesia (Association for the Integration of Timor into Indonesia),[19] APODETI expressed concerns that an independent East Timor would then be economically weak and vulnerable.[20] GATEWAY M-6823A Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian nationalist and military hardliners, particularly leaders of the intelligence agency Kopkamtib and special operations unit, Opsus, saw the Portuguese coup as an opportunity for East Timor's integration with Indonesia. The central government and military feared that an East Timor governed by leftists could be used as a base for incursions by unfriendly powers into Indonesia, HP 441426-001 Laptop Keyboard

and also that an independent East Timor within the archipelago could inspire secessionist sentiments within Indonesian provinces. The fear of national disintegration were played upon military leaders close to Suharto and remained as one of Indonesia's strongest justifications for Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

refusing to entertain the prospect of East Timorese independence or even autonomy until the late 1990s.[21] The military intelligence organisations initially sought a non-military annexationstrategy, intending to use APODETI as its integration vehicle.[22] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

In January 1975, UDT and FRETILIN established a tentative coalition dedicated to achieving independence for East Timor.[23]At the same time, the Australian government reported that the Indonesian military had conducted a "pre-invasion" exercise atLampung.[24] For months, the Indonesian Special Operations command, TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard

OPSUS, had been covertly supporting APODETI throughOperasi Komodo (Operation Komodo, named after the lizard). By broadcasting accusations of communism among FRETILIN leaders and sowing discord in the UDT coalition, the Indonesian government fostered instability in East Timor and, observers said, created a pretext for invading.[25] By May tensions between the two groups caused UDT to withdraw from the coalition.[26] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

In an attempt to negotiate a settlement to the dispute over East Timor's future, the Portuguese Decolonization Commission convened a conference in June 1975 inMacau. FRETILIN boycotted the meeting in protest of APODETI's presence; representatives of UDT and APODETI complained that this was an effort to obstruct the decolonization process.[27] In his 1987 memoir Funu: HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Unfinished Saga of East Timor, FRETILIN leader José Ramos-Horta recalls his "vehement protests" against his party's refusal to attend the meeting. "This", he writes, "was one of our tactical political errors for which I could never find an intelligent explanation."[28] HP G42-366TX laptop keyboard

Once they had gained control of East Timor, FRETILIN faced attacks from the west, by Indonesian military forces—then known as Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia (ABRI)—and by a small group of UDT troops.[35] Indonesia captured the border city of Batugadé on 8 October 1975; nearby Balibó and Maliana were taken eight days later.[36] During the Balibó raid, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard

members of an Australian television news crew—later dubbed the "Balibo Five"—were killed by Indonesian soldiers.[37] Indonesian military officials say the deaths were accidental, and East Timorese witnesses say the journalists were deliberately killed. The deaths, and subsequent campaigns and investigations, attracted international attention and rallied support for East Timorese independence.[38] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

At the start of November, the foreign ministers from Indonesia and Portugal met in Rome to discuss a resolution of the conflict. Although no Timorese leaders were invited to the talks, FRETILIN sent a message expressing their desire to work with Portugal. ACER Aspire 5051AWXC laptop keyboard

The meeting ended with both parties agreeing that Portugal would meet with political leaders in East Timor, but the talks never took place.[39] In mid-November, Indonesian forces began shelling the city of Atabae from the sea, and captured it by the end of the month.[40] HP Pavilion DV9001EA laptop keyboard

Frustrated by Portugal's inaction, FRETILIN leaders believed they could ward off Indonesian advances more effectively if they declared an independent East Timor. National Political Commissioner Mari Alkatiri conducted a diplomatic tour of Africa, gathering support from governments there and elsewhere. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

According to FRETILIN, this effort yielded assurances from twenty-five countries—including the People's Republic of China, the Soviet Union, Mozambique, Sweden, and Cuba—to recognise the new nation. Cuba currently shares close relations with East Timor today. On 28 November 1975, HP Pavilion dv6-3089la laptop keyboard

FRETILIN unilaterally declared independence for the Democratic Republic of East Timor.[41] Indonesia announced, UDT and APODETI leaders in and around Balibó would responded the next day by declaring that region independent from East Timor and officially part of Indonesia.  HP Pavilion dv4-1201tu laptop keyboard

But this Balibo Declaration was drafted by Indonesian intelligence and signed on Bali. Later this was described as the 'Balibohong Declaration', a pun on the Indonesian word for 'lie'.[42][43] Portugal rejected both declarations, and the Indonesian government approved military action to begin its annexation of East Timor.[44] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard

On 7 December 1975, Indonesian forces invaded East Timor. Operasi Seroja (Operation Lotus) was the largest military operation ever carried out by that nation.[44][45] Troops from FRETILIN's military organization FALINTILengaged ABRI forces in the streets of Dili, and reported 400 Indonesian paratroopers were killed as they descended into the city.[46] HP G62-459TX laptop keyboard

Angkasa Magazine reports 35 dead Indonesian troops, and 122 from the Fretilin side.[47] By the end of the year, 10,000 troops occupied Dili and another 20,000 had been deployed throughout East Timor.[46][48] ACER NSK-H3M1D laptop keyboard

Massively outnumbered, FALINTIL troops fled to the mountains and continued guerrilla combat operations.[49] Indonesian soldiers in towns, particularly Dili, were reported to have indiscriminately killed civilians, including the rape and killing of women and children.[50] SONY Vaio PCG-K215Z laptop keyboard

In March 1976, UDT leader Lopez da Cruz reported that 60,000 Timorese had been killed during the invasion. A delegation of Indonesian relief workers agreed with this statistic.[52] In an interview on 5 April 1977 with the Sydney Morning Herald, Indonesian Foreign Minister Adam Malik said the number of dead was "50,000 people or perhaps 80,000".[51] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

The Indonesian government presented its annexation of East Timor as a matter of anticolonial unity. A 1977 booklet from the Indonesian Department of Foreign Affairs, entitled Decolonization in East Timor, paid tribute to the "sacred right of self-determination"[53] DELL Latitude E5500 Laptop Keyboard

and recognised APODETI as the true representatives of the East Timorese majority. It claimed that FRETILIN's popularity was the result of a "policy of threats, blackmail and terror".[54] Later, Indonesian Foreign Minister Ali Alatasreiterated this position in his 2006 memoir The Pebble in the Shoe: The Diplomatic Struggle for East Timor.[55] The island's original division into east and west,  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia argued after the invasion, was "the result of colonial oppression" enforced by the Portuguese and Dutch imperial powers. Thus, according to the Indonesian government, its annexation of the 27th province was merely another step in the unification of the archipelago which had begun in the 1940s.[56] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

On the day following the invasion, a committee of the United Nations General Assembly convened to debate the situation. Nations allied with Indonesia—including India, Japan, and Malaysia—wrote a resolution blaming Portugal and the Timorese political parties for the bloodshed; it was rejected in favor of a draft prepared by Algeria, Cuba, Senegal, and Guyana, among others. THP Mini 210-1170NR Laptop Keyboard

his was adopted as GA Resolution 3485 (XXX) on 12 December, calling on Indonesia to "withdraw without delay".[57] Ten days later the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 384 (1975), which echoes the GA resolution's call for an immediate Indonesian withdrawal.[58] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

One year later the Security Council expressed the same sentiment in Resolution 389 (1976), and the General Assembly passed resolutions every year between 1976 and 1982 calling for self-determination in East Timor.[59] Governments of large countries like China and the United States opposed further action; DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

smaller countries like Costa Rica, Guinea-Bissau, and Iceland were the only delegations calling for strong enforcement of the resolutions.[60]The 1982 resolution calls on the UN Secretary-General to "initiate consultations with all parties directly concerned, with a view to exploring avenues for achieving a comprehensive settlement of the problem".[61] ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard

Legal expert Roger S. Clark notes that Indonesia's invasion and occupation violated two key elements of international law: the right to self-determination and the prohibition on aggression. Neither the petition of 7 September 1975 calling for integration, nor the later resolution of the "People's Assembly"HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

in May 1976, qualify as "informed and democratic processes impartially conducted and based on universal adult suffrage", as required by UN General Assembly Resolution 1541 (XV), which establishes the guidelines for the norms of self-determination. Other inadequacies existed in the petitions as well.[62] Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia's use of military force in East Timor is cited as a violation of Chapter I of the United Nations Charter, which states: "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state...." HP 502958-001 Laptop Keyboard

Some observers have argued that East Timor was not a state at the time of the invasion, and is thus not protected by the UN Charter. This claim mirrors those made against Indonesia by the Dutch during the Indonesian National Revolution.[63] As legal scholar Susan Marks points out, if East Timor was considered a Portuguese colony, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

then although "there may be some doubt about the application of this provision [of UN Charter Chapter I] in the context of an armed conflict between a colonial power and its own colony, there can hardly be doubt that it applies to force by one sovereign state against another state's colony".[64] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

On 17 December, Indonesia formed the Provisional Government of East Timor (PGET) which was headed by Arnaldo dos Reis Araújo of APODETI as president and Lopez da Cruz of UDT.[65] Most sources describe this institution as a creation of the Indonesian military.[66] One of PGET's first activities was the formation of a "Popular Assembly" consisting of elected representatives and leaders "from various walks of Timorese life".[67] HP Compaq G50-102NR Laptop Keyboard

Like the PGET itself, the Popular Assembly is usually characterised as an instrument of propaganda created by the Indonesian military; although international journalists were invited to witness the group's meeting in May 1976, their movement was tightly constrained.[68] The Assembly drafted a request for formal integration into Indonesia, which Jakarta described as "the act of self-determination" in East Timor.[69] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia kept East Timor shut off from the rest of the world, except for a few years in the late 1980s and early 1990s, claiming that the vast majority of East Timorese supported integration. This position was followed closely by the Indonesian media such that an East Timorese acceptance of their integration with Indonesia was taken for granted by, and was a non-issue for, the majority of Indonesians.[71] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

Starting in September 1977, Indonesian forces began what Catholic officials in East Timor called an "encirclement and annihilation" campaign.[72] 35,000 ABRI troops surrounded areas of FRETILIN support and killed hundreds of men, women, and children. Air and naval bombardments were followed by ground troops, who destroyed villages and agricultural infrastructure. HP Pavilion DV7-3164cl laptop keyboard

Thousands of people may have been killed during this period.[73] During a firefight with Indonesian troops in December 1978, FRETILIN's leader Nicolau Lobato was killed. His successor was Xanana Gusmão, who was instrumental in building the National Council of Maubere Resistance (CNRM), an umbrella structure for people and groups opposed to the occupation.[74] GATEWAY MX3228 laptop keyboard

Indonesian forces moved hundreds of thousands of people into camps, where they were imprisoned and subjected to hunger.[75] FRETILIN radio claimed Indonesian planes dropped chemical agents, and several observers—including the Bishop of Dili—reported seeing napalm dropped on the countryside[citation needed].[76] HP Pavilion dv3-2155mx laptop keyboard

 In 1981 the Indonesian military launched Operasi Keamanan (Operation Security), which some have named the "fence of legs" program. 50,000 East Timorese men and boys were ordered to march through the mountains, sweeping guerrillas into the central part of the region. The operation failed to crush the resistance, and popular resentment toward the occupation grew stronger than ever.[77] ASUS F3L laptop keyboard

As FRETILIN troops in the mountains continued their sporadic attacks, Indonesian forces carried out numerous operations to destroy them over the next ten years. In the cities and villages, meanwhile, a non-violent resistance movement began to take shape.[78] HP Mini 110-3113eo Laptop Keyboard

At the same time, Indonesian forces carried out a widespread campaign of killing, torture, forced disappearances, political imprisonment, and other abuses of human rights.[79] Starting in 1981, Indonesian officials sent thousands of prisoners to Atauro Island, where Amnesty International described the conditions as "deplorable".[80] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Massacres by the Indonesian military have been documented across East Timor. In September 1981, 400 civilians were killed in Lacluta, and in August 1983, 200 people were burned alive in the village of Creras, with 500 others killed at a nearby river. An eyewitness who testified before the Australian Senate stated that soldiers deliberately killed small children by smashing their heads against a rock.[81] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Those suspected of opposing integration were often arrested and tortured.[82] In 1983 Amnesty International published an Indonesian manual it had received from East Timor instructing military personnel on how to inflict physical and mental anguish, and cautioning troops to "Avoid taking photographs showing torture (of someone being given electric shocks, stripped naked and so on)".[83TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

] In his 1997 memoir East Timor's Unfinished Struggle: Inside the Timorese Resistance,Constâncio Pinto describes being tortured by Indonesian soldiers: "With each question, I would get two or three punches in the face. When someone punches you so much and so hard, it feels as if your face is broken. People hit me on my back and on my sides with their hands and then kicked me....  ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

[In another location] they psychologically tortured me; they didn't hit me, but they made strong threats to kill me. They even put a gun on the table."[84] In Michele Turner's bookTelling East Timor: Personal Testimonies 1942–1992, a woman named Fátima describes watching torture take place in a Dili prison: Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

"They make people sit on a chair with the front of the chair on their own toes. It is mad, yes. The soldiers urinate in the food then mix it up for the person to eat. They use electric shock and they use an electric machine...."[85] HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian military abuses against women in East Timor were numerous and well-documented.[86] In addition to suffering arbitrary detainment, torture, and extrajudicial execution, women faced rape and sexual abuse—sometimes for the crime of being related to an independence activist.  ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

The scope of the problem is difficult to ascertain, owing to the intense military control imposed during the occupation, compounded by the shame felt by victims. In a 1995 report on violence against women in Indonesia and East Timor, Amnesty International USA wrote: "Women are reluctant to pass on information to non-governmental organizations about rape and sexual abuse, let alone to report violations to the military or police authorities."[87] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Other forms of violence against women took the form of harassment, intimidation, and enforced marriage. The Amnesty report cites the case of a woman forced to live with a commander in Baucau, then harassed daily by troops after her release.[87] Such "marriages" took place regularly during the occupation.[88]  ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard

Women were also encouraged to accept sterilization procedures, and some were pressured to take the contraceptive Depo Provera, sometimes without full knowledge of its effects.[89] SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

In 1999 researcher Rebecca Winters released the book Buibere: Voice of East Timorese Women, which chronicles many personal stories of violence and abuse dating to the earliest days of the occupation. One woman tells of being interrogated while stripped half-naked, tortured, molested, and threatened with death.[90] HP 506782-001 Laptop Keyboard

Another describes being chained at the hands and feet, raped repeatedly, and interrogated for weeks.[91] A woman who had prepared food for FRETILIN guerrillas was arrested, burned with cigarettes, tortured with electricity, and forced to walk naked past a row of soldiers into a tank filled with urine and feces.[92] GATEWAY M-1625 Laptop Keyboard

With large sectors of the population forced into resettlement camps, food production was severely limited. Those in the camps were allowed to farm only a small area of land nearby, and constant re-use of soil made it barren.[93] Hunger and starvation began to claim thousands of lives in the late 1970s. ASUS F3M Laptop Keyboard

One church worker reported five hundred East Timorese dying of starvation every month in one district.[94] World Vision Indonesia visited East Timor in October 1978 and claimed that 70,000 East Timorese were at risk of starvation.[95] An envoy from the International Committee of the Red Cross reported in 1979 that 80 percent of one camp's population was malnourished, SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

in a situation that was "as bad as Biafra".[96] The ICRC warned that "tens of thousands" were at risk of starvation.[97]Indonesia announced that it was working through the government-run Indonesian Red Cross to alleviate the crisis, but the NGO Action for World Development charged that organization with selling donated aid supplies.[94]  HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard

In 2006 the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor released a 2,500-page report that accused the Indonesian military of using enforced starvation as a weapon to exterminate the East Timorese civilian population, and that large numbers of people were "positively denied access to food and its sources".DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard

The report, based on interviews with over 8,000 witnesses, as well as Indonesian military papers and intelligence from international sources, stated that the Indonesians used chemical weapons and napalm to poison food and water supplies.[98][99] HP Pavilion dv3-2011tx Laptop Keyboard

The group's final report cites testimony from individuals who were denied food, and details destruction of crops and livestock by Indonesian soldiers.[100] It concluded that a minimum of 73,000 people died due to hunger and illness as a result of the occupation.[101] TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard

The Indonesian government reported in 1977 that several mass graves containing "scores" of people killed by FRETILIN had been found near Ailieu and Samé.[102]Amnesty International confirmed these reports in 1985, TOSHIBA Satellite L550-ST2743 laptop keyboard

and also expressed concern about several extrajudicial killings for which FRETILIN had claimed responsibility.[103] In 1997 Human Rights Watch condemned a series of attacks carried out by FRETILIN, which led to the deaths of nine civilians.[104] HP Pavilion DV7-3110tx laptop keyboard

The Portuguese language was banned in East Timor and Indonesian was made the language of government, education and public commerce, and the Indonesian school curriculum was implemented. The official Indonesian national ideology, Pancasila, was applied to East Timor and government jobs were restricted to those holding certification in Pancasila training. HP G61-465SL laptop keyboard

East Timoreseanimist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia's constitutional monotheism, resulting in mass conversions to Christianity. Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests and Latin and Portuguese mass was replaced by Indonesian mass.[105] Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

Before the invasion, less than 30 percent of East Timorese were Roman Catholics, and by the 1980s, 80 percent were registered as Catholics.[105] With a 90 percent Catholic population, East Timor is currently one of the most densely Catholic countries in the world.[106] SONY Vaio PCG-K315M laptop keyboard

East Timor was a particular focus for the Indonesian government's transmigration program, which aimed to resettle Indonesians from densely to less populated regions. Media censorship under the "New Order" meant that the state of conflict in East Timor was unknown to the transmigrants, HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard

 predominantly poor Javanese and Balinese wet-rice farmers. On arrival they found themselves under ongoing threat of attack by East Timorese resistance fighters, and became the object of local resentment, since large tracts of land belonging to East Timorese had been compulsorily appropriated by the Indonesian government for transmigrant settlement. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard

Although many gave up and returned to their island of origin, those migrants that stayed in East Timor contributed to the "Indonesianisation" of East Timor's integration.[107] 662 transmigrant families (2,208 people) settled in East Timor in 1993,[108] Hp Envy 13-1940EZ Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

whereas an estimated 150,000 free Indonesian settlers lived in East Timor by the mid-1990s, including those offered jobs in education and administration.[109] Migration increased resentment amongst Timorese who were overtaken by more business savvy immigrants.[110] Hp Envy 13t-1000 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Following the invasion, Portuguese commercial interests were taken over by Indonesians.[111] The border with West Timor was opened resulting in an influx of West Timorese farmers, Hp Envy 14 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

and in January 1989 the territory was open to private investment. Economic life in the towns was subsequently brought under the control of entrepreneurial Bugis, Makassarese, and Butonese immigrants from South Sulawesi, while East Timor products were exported under partnerships between army officials Indonesian businessmen.[112] Denok, a military-controlled firm, Hp Envy 14-1000wx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

monopolised some of East Timor's most lucrative commercial activities, including sandal wood export, hotels, and the import of consumer products.[113] The group's most profitable business, however, was its monopoly on the export of coffee, which was the territory's most valuable cash crop.[114] Indonesian entrepreneurs came to dominate non-Denok/military enterprises, and local manufactures from the Portuguese period made way for Indonesian imports.[113] Hp Envy 14-1000xx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Indonesian government's primary response to criticism of its policies was to highlight its funding of development in East Timor's health, education, communications, transportation, and agriculture.[115] East Timor, however, remained poor following centuries of Portuguese colonial neglect and Indonesian criticGeorge Aditjondro points out that conflict in the early years of occupation lead to sharp drops in rice and coffee production, Hp Envy 14-1001tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

and livestock populations.[116]Other critics argue that infrastructure development, such as road construction, is often designed to facilitate Indonesian military and corporate interests.[117]While the military controlled key businesses, private investors, both Indonesian and international, Hp Envy 14-1002tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

avoided the territory. Despite improvements since 1976, a 1993 Indonesian government report estimated that in three-quarters of East Timor's 61 districts, more than half lived in poverty.[118] Hp Envy 14-1003tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Major investment by the Indonesian government to improve East Timor's infrastructure, and health and education facilities since 1975, did not end East Timorese resistance to Indonesian rule.[119] Hp Envy 14-1004tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Although by the 1980s Fretilin forces had dropped to a few hundred armed men, Fretilin increased its contacts with young Timorese especially in Dili, and an un-armed civil resistance seeking self-determination took shape. Many of those in the protest movements were young children at the time of the invasion and had been educated under the Indonesian system. Hp Envy 14-1005tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

They resented the repression of Timorese cultural and political life at the expense of the Indonesian, were ambivalent of Indonesian economic development, and spoke Portuguese amongst themselves, stressing their Portuguese heritage. Seeking help from Portugal for self-determination, Hp Envy 14-1006tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

they considered Indonesia an occupying force.[120] Abroad, Fretilin's members—most notably former journalistJosé Ramos-Horta (later to be Prime Minister and President)—pushed their cause in diplomatic forums.[121] Hp Envy 14-1007tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The reduced armed resistance prompted the Indonesian government in 1988 to open up East Timor to improve its commercial prospects, including a lifting of the travel ban on journalists. The new policy came from foreign minister Ali Alatas against the advice of the military leadership who feared it would lead to loss of control. Hp Envy 14-1008tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Alatas and diplomats swayed Suharto of the policy as a response to international concerns. In late 1989, hardline military commander Brigadier General Mulyadi was replaced by Brigadier General Rudolph Warouw who promised a more "persuasive" approach to anti-integrationists. Restrictions on travel within the territory were reduced, Hp Envy 14-1009tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

groups of political prisoners were released, and the use of torture in interrogation became less common. Warouw attempted to increase military discipline; in February 1990 an Indonesian soldier was prosecuted for unlawful conduct in East Timor, the first such action since the invasion.[122] SONY PCG-GR300 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

A reduced fear of persecution encouraged the resistance movements; anti-integration protests accompanied high-profile visits to East Timor including that of Pope John Paul II in 1989.[123] The end of the Cold War removed much of the justification for western support of Indonesia's occupation. SONY PCG-GR300K Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The resulting increase in international attention to self-determination and human rights put further pressure on Indonesia.[124] Subsequent events within East Timor in the 1990s helped to dramatically raise the international profile of East Timor, which in turn significantly boosted the momentum of the resistance groups.[125] SONY PCG-GR315MP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

During a memorial mass on 12 November 1991 for a pro-independence youth shot by Indonesian troops, demonstrators among the 2,500-strong crowd unfurled the Fretlin flag and banners with pro-independence slogans, and chanted boisterously but peacefully.[126] Following a brief confrontation between Indonesian troops and protesters,[127] 200 Indonesian soldiers opened fire on the crowd killing at least 250 Timorese.[128] SONY PCG-GR37 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The testimonies of foreigners at the cemetery were quickly reported to international news organisations, and video footage of the massacre was widely broadcast internationally[129] causing outrage.[130] In response to the massacre, activists around the world organised in solidarity with the East Timorese, and a new urgency was brought to calls for self-determination.[131] SONY PCG-GR370 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

TAPOL, a British organization formed in 1973 to advocate for democracy in Indonesia, increased its work around East Timor. In the United States, the East Timor Action Network (now the East Timor and Indonesia Action Network) was founded and soon had chapters in ten cities around the country.[132] Other solidarity groups appeared in Portugal, Australia, Japan, Germany, Malaysia, Ireland, SONY PCG-GR370K Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

and Brazil. Coverage of the massacre was a vivid example of how growth of new media in Indonesia was making it increasingly difficult for the "New Order" to control information flow in and out of Indonesia, and that in the post-Cold War 1990s, the government was coming under increasing international scrutiny.[133] SONY PCG-GR370P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

A number of pro-democracy student groups and their magazines began to openly and critically discuss not just East Timor, but also the "New Order" and the broader history and future of Indonesia.[131][133][134] SONY PCG-GR390 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Sharp condemnation of the military came not just from the international community, but from within parts of the Indonesian elite. The massacre ended the governments 1989 opening of the territory and a new period of repression began.[70] SONY PCG-GR390K Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Warouw was removed from his position and his more accommodating approach to Timorese resistance rebuked by his superiors. Suspected Fretilin sympathisers were arrested, human rights abuses rose, and the ban on foreign journalists was reimposed. Hatred intensified amongst Timorese of the Indonesian military presence.[135] Major General Prabowo's, Kopassus Group 3 trained militias gangs dressed in black hoods to crush the remaining resistance.[70] SONY PCG-GR3BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Independence for East Timor, or even limited regional autonomy, was never going to be allowed under Suharto's New Order. Notwithstanding Indonesian public opinion in the 1990s occasionally showing begrudging appreciation of the Timorese position, it was widely feared that an independent East Timor would destabilise Indonesian unity.[147] SONY PCG-GR3F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, however, caused tremendous upheaval in Indonesia and led to Suharto's resignation in May 1998, ending his thirty-year presidency.[148] Prabowo, by then in command of the powerful Indonesian Strategic Reserve, went into exile in Jordan and military operations in East Timor were costing the bankrupt Indonesian government a million dollars a day.[70] SONY PCG-GR3F/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The subsequent "reformasi" period of relative political openness and transition, included unprecedented debate about Indonesia's relationship with East Timor. For the remainder of 1998, discussion forums took place throughout Dili working towards a referendum.[70] Foreign Minister Alatas, SONY PCG-GR3N Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

described plans for phased autonomy leading to possible independence as "all pain, no gain" for Indonesia.[149] On 8 June 1998, three weeks after taking office, Suharto's successor B. J. Habibie announced that Indonesia would soon offer East Timor a special plan for autonomy.[148] SONY PCG-GR3N/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In late 1998, the Australian Government of John Howard drafted a letter to Indonesia advising of a change in Australian policy, and advocating for the staging of referendum on independence within a decade. President Habibie saw such an arrangement as implying "colonial rule" by Indonesia and he decided to call a snap referendum on the issue.[150] SONY PCG-GR5BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Indonesia and Portugal announced on 5 May 1999 that it had agreed to hold a vote allowing the people of East Timor to choose between the autonomy plan or independence. The vote, to be administered by the United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET), was originally scheduled for 8 August but later postponed until 30 August. SONY PCG-GR5E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Indonesia also took responsibility for security; this arrangement caused worry in East Timor, but many observers believe that Indonesia would have refused to allow foreign peacekeepers during the vote.[151] SONY PCG-GR5E/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

As groups supporting autonomy and independence began campaigning, a series of pro-integration paramilitary groups of East Timorese began threatening violence—and indeed committing violence—around the country. SONY PCG-GR5F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Alleging pro-independence bias on the part of UNAMET, the groups were seen working with and receiving training from Indonesian soldiers. Before the May agreement was announced, an April paramilitary attack in Liquiça left dozens of East Timorese dead. On 16 May 1999, a gang accompanied by Indonesian troops attacked suspected independence activists in the village of Atara; SONY PCG-GR5F/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

in June another group attacked a UNAMET office in Maliana. Indonesian authorities claimed to be helpless to stop the violence between rival factions among the East Timorese, but Ramos-Horta joined many others in scoffing at such notions.[152] In February 1999 he said: "Before [Indonesia] withdraws it wants to wreak major havoc and destabilization, as it has always promised. We have consistently heard that over the years from the Indonesian military in Timor."[153] Acer Aspire 1412LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

As militia leaders warned of a "bloodbath", Indonesian "roving ambassador" Francisco Lopes da Cruz declared: "If people reject autonomy there is the possibility blood will flow in East Timor."[154] Acer Aspire 1412LCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

 One paramilitary announced that a vote for independence would result in a "sea of fire", an expression referring to theBandung Sea of Fire during Indonesia's own war of independence from the Dutch.[155] As the date of the vote drew near, reports of anti-independence violence continued to accumulate.[156] Acer Aspire 1412LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The day of the vote, 30 August 1999, was generally calm and orderly. 98.6 percent of registered voters cast ballots, and on 4 September UN Secretary-GeneralKofi Annan announced that 78.5 percent of the votes had been cast for independence.[157] Acer Aspire 1412LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Brought up on the "New Order"'s insistence that the East Timorese supported integration, Indonesians were either shocked by, or disbelieved that the East Timorese had voted against being part of Indonesia. Many accepted media stories blaming the supervising United Nations and Australia who had pressured Habibie for a resolution.[158] Acer Aspire 1412WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Within hours of the results, paramilitary groups had begun attacking people and setting fires around the capital Dili. Foreign journalists and election observers fled, and tens of thousands of East Timorese took to the mountains. Islamic gangs attacked Dili's Catholic Diocese building, Acer Aspire 1413 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

killing two dozen people; the next day, the headquarters of the ICRC was attacked and burned to the ground. Almost one hundred people were killed later in Suai, and reports of similar massacres poured in from around East Timor.[159] The UN withdrew most of its personnel, but the Dili compound had been flooded with refugees. Acer Aspire 1413LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

 Four UN workers refused to evacuate unless the refugees were withdrawn as well, insisting they would rather die at the hands of the paramilitary groups.[157] At the same time, Indonesian troops and paramilitary gangs forced over 200,000 people into West Timor, into camps described by Human Rights Watch as "deplorable conditions".[160] Acer Aspire 1414 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

When a UN delegation arrived in Jakarta on 8 September, they were told by Indonesian President Habibie that reports of bloodshed in East Timor were "fantasies" and "lies".[161] General Wiranto of the Indonesian military insisted that his soldiers had the situation under control, and later expressed his emotion for East Timor by singing the 1975 hit song "Feelings" at an event for military wives.[162][163] Acer Aspire 1414L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The violence was met with widespread public anger in Australia, Portugal and elsewhere and activists in Portugal, Australia, the United States and other nations pressured their governments to take action. Australian Prime Minister John Howardconsulted United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan and lobbied U.S. President Bill Clinton to support an Australian led international peace keeper force to enter East Timor to end the violence. Acer Aspire 1414LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The United States offered crucial logistical and intelligence resources and an "over-horizon" deterrent presence, but did not commit forces to the operation. Finally, on 11 September, Bill Clinton announced:[165] Acer Aspire 1414LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Indonesia, in dire economic straits relented. President BJ Habibie announced on 12 September that Indonesia would withdraw Indonesian soldiers and allow an Australian-led international peacekeeping force to enter East Timor.[166] Acer Aspire 1414LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

On 15 September 1999, the United Nations Security Council expressed concern at the deteriorating situation in East Timor, and issued UNSC Resolution 1264 calling for a multinational force to restore peace and security to East Timor, to protect and support the United Nations mission there, and to facilitate humanitarian assistance operations until such time as a United Nations peacekeeping force could be approved and deployed in the area.[167] Acer Aspire 1414WLCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The International Force for East Timor, or INTERFET, under the command of Australian Major General Peter Cosgrove, entered Dili on 20 September and by 31 October the last Indonesian troops had left East Timor.[164] The arrival of thousands of international troops in East Timor caused the militia to flee across the border into Indonesia, from whence sporadic cross-border raids by the militia against INTERFET forces were conducted. Acer Aspire 1414WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) was established at the end of October and administered the region for two years. Control of the nation was turned over to the Government of East Timor and independence was declared on 20 May 2002.[168] On 27 September of the same year, East Timor joined the United Nations as its 191st member state.[169] Acer Aspire 1415 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The bulk of the military forces of INTERFET were Australian—more than 5,500 troops at its peak, including an infantry brigade, with armoured and aviation support—while eventually 22 nations contributed to the force which at its height numbered over 11,000 troops.[170] The United States provided crucial logistic and diplomatic support throughout the crisis, Acer Aspire 1415LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

while the cruiser USS Mobile Bay protected the INTERFET naval fleet and a U.S. Marine infantry battalion of 1,000 men—plus organic armour and artillery—was also stationed off the coast aboard the USS Belleau Wood in order to provide a strategic reserve in the event of significant armed opposition.[171] Acer Aspire 1640 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

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Thimphu

Thimphu (Tibetan alphabet: ཐིམ་ཕུག་, Dzongkha: ཐིམ་ཕུ་), also spelled Thimpu, is the capital and largest city of Bhutan.[1][2] It is situated in the western central part of Bhutan and the surrounding valley is one of Bhutan'sdzongkhags, the Thimphu District. The city became the capital of Bhutan in 1961. As of 2005 it had a population of 79,185,[1] with 98,676 people living in the entire Thimphu district. HP Pavilion G6-1B79US Laptop Keyboard

The city is spread out longitudinally in a north-south direction on the west bank of the valley formed by the Wang Chuu, also known as the Thimphu Chuu River. Thimphu is located at 27°28′00″N 89°38′30″E  and is spread over an altitudinal range between 2,248 metres (7,375 ft) and 2,648 metres (8,688 ft).[3][4][5][6][7] Unusual for a capital city, Thimphu is not served by an airport, but relies on the airport at Paro, connected by road some 54 kilometres (34 mi) away. HP 416416-001 Laptop Keyboard

Thimphu, as the political and economic centre of Bhutan, has a dominant agricultural and livestock base, which contributes to 45% of the country's GNP.[8] Tourism, though a contributor to the economy, is strictly regulated, maintaining a balance between the traditional and development and modernization. Thimphu contains most of the important political buildings in Bhutan, HP CT1A Laptop Keyboard

including the National Assembly of the newly formed parliamentary democracy andDechencholing Palace, the official residence of the King, located to the north of the city. As a metropolis and capital city, Thimphu is coordinated by the "Thimphu Structure Plan", an Urban Development Plan which evolved in 1998 with the objective of protecting the fragile ecology of the valley. This development is ongoing with financial assistance from the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

The culture of Bhutan is fully reflected in Thimphu in respect of literature, religion, customs, and national dress code, the monastic practices of the monasteries, music, dance, literature and in the media. Tsechu festival is an important festival when mask dances, popularly known as Cham dances, are performed in the courtyards of the Tashichhoe Dzong in Thimphu. It is a four-day festival held every year during Autumn (September/October), on dates corresponding to the Bhutanese calendar. HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Before 1960, Thimphu consisted of a group of hamlets scattered across the valley including Motithang, Changangkha, Changlimithang, Langchupakha, and Taba, some of which constitute districts of the city today (see below for district details).[9] In 1885, a battle was held at what is now the Changlimithang sports ground in Thimbu. TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

The decisive victory opened the way for Ugyen Wangchuck, the first King of Bhutan to virtually control the whole country.[10] Since this time the sports ground has been of major importance to the city and football, cricket matches and archery competitions take place there. The modern Changlimithang Stadium was built on the site in 1974. Under the Wangchu Dynasty, HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

the country enjoyed peace and progress under successive reformist monarchs. The third king, Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, reformed the old pseudo-feudal systems by abolishing serfdom, redistributing land, and reforming taxation. He also introduced many executive, legislative, and judiciary reforms. FUJITSU Lifebook T4220 Laptop Keyboard

Reforms continued and in 1952 the decision was made to shift the capital from the ancient capital ofPunakha to Thimphu.[9] The fourth king, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, opened the country for development and India provided the needed impetus in this process with financial and other forms of assistance. In 1961, Thimphu officially became the capital of Bhutan. SONY VAIO VGN-CR520E Laptop Keyboard

Bhutan joined the Colombo Plan in 1962, International Postal Union in 1969 and became a member of the United Nations in 1971. The presence of Diplomatic Missions and International Funding Organizations in Thimphu resulted in rapid expansion of Thimphu as a metropolis.[11][12][13] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

The fourth King, who had established the National Assembly in 1953, devolved all executive powers to a council of ministers elected by the people in 1998. He introduced a system of voting no confidence in the king, which empowered the parliament to remove the monarch. The National Constitution Committee in Thimphu started drafting the Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan in 2001.  IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

In 2005, the fourth king of Bhutan announced his decision to hand over the reins of his kingdom to his son Prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuk. The Coronation of the King was held in Thimphu at the refurbished national stadium and coincided with the centenary of the establishment of the Wangchuk dynasty.[11][12][13] In 2008, this paved way for the transition from absolute monarchic rule to a parliamentary democratic constitutional monarchy, TOSHIBA Equium A100 Series Laptop Keyboard

with Thimphu as the headquarters of the new government, with the national defined objective of achieving "Gross National Happiness" (GNH) concomitant with the growth of Gross National Product (GNP).[11][12][13] Thimphu is situated in the constricted, linear Wang Chuu valley. The river is also known as the Thimphu Chuu (Chuu meaning "river") and the Raidak River. While the surrounding hills are in an altitudinal range of 2,000–3,800 metres (6,600–12,500 ft) (warm temperate zone between 2,000–3,000 metres (6,600–9,800 ft) and cold temperate zone between 3,000–3,800 metres (9,800–12,500 ft)), HP Mini 210-1103TU Laptop Keyboard

the city itself has an altitude range varying between 2,248 metres (7,375 ft) and 2,648 metres (8,688 ft). It is these two variations in altitude and climate which determine the habitable zones and vegetation typology for the valley. The valley, however, is thinly forested and is spread out to the north and west. At the southern end of the city, the Lungten Zampa bridge connects the east and west banks of the Wang Chuu which flows through the heart of city.[3][14][15] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The Thimphu Chuu or the Wang Chuu raises in the snow fields at an altitude of about 7,000 metres (23,000 ft). It has many tributaries that flow from the Himalayan peaks that largely dictate the topography of the Thimphu valley. The Thimphu valley, so formed, is delimited by a steep eastern ridge that rises from the riverbed and a valley formation with gradually sloping topography, extending from Dechencholing and Simtokha, on the western banks of the Thimphu Chuu.  HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

The north-south orientation of the hill ranges of the valley means that they are exposed to moist monsoon winds which engulf the inner Himalayas and its lower valleys. However, the windward and leeward sides of the hill ranges have different vegetation patterns depending on the varying rainfall incidence in the two sides. IBM 39T0550 Laptop Keyboard

Thimphu valley lying in the leeward side of the mountains is comparatively dry and contains a different type of vegetation as compared to the windward side. Hence, the coniferous vegetation in the valley is attributed to this phenomenon. Punakha, the old capital of Bhutan, is on the windward side with broad-leaved trees dominating the topography.[3][5][14] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The city experiences a southwest monsoon-influenced subtropical highland climate of a warm, temperate climate. The southwest monsoon rainfall occurs during mid-June to September. Lightning and thunder often precedes rainfall in the region withcumulonimbus clouds and light showers dominating the weather.[3][5] Continuous rainfall for several days occurs resulting in landslides and blockage of roads. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

Streams and rivers swell up carrying huge amounts of debris from forests. Deep puddles, thick mud, and landslides along roads form barriers to transportation. Cold winds, low temperatures at night, and moderate temperatures during the day, cloudiness, light showers and snowfall mark winter weather in this zone. Fog causes poor visibility, which poses a threat to vehicular traffic in the city.[3][5] As spring approaches, the landscape is marked by violent winds and relatively dry and clear skies.[3][5] IBM 39T0550 Laptop Keyboard

Thimphu experiences a wet season, which runs from May through September and a dry season that covers the remainder of the year. Rainfall in the valley varies between 500 millimetres (20 in) and 1,000 millimetres (39 in) per year, the bulk of which is received during the monsoonal wet season. Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

The average temperature recorded during winter varies between 5–15 °C (41–59 °F) while in summer the variation is between 15–30 °C (59–86 °F).[3][5][16] The coldest average (minimum) temperature in January is −2.6 °C (27.3 °F) and the average highest temperature recorded during August is 25 °C (77 °F). HP G62-130EV Laptop Keyboard

Changangkha is a western central district, located between the Chubachu centre and Motithang to the west. It contains the Changangkha Lhakhang.[19] Changangkha Lhakhang is one of the oldest temples in the Thimphu valley, having been built in the 15th century by a descendant of Phajo Drugom Shigpo, the founder of the Drukpa school in Bhutan.[20] ACER Aspire 5535 Laptop Keyboard

 The Lhakhang houses a statue of Chenresig in a manifested form of 11 heads and thousand arms. The shrine also has very large prayer wheels and unusually large size sacred scriptures.[21] The temple was restored in 1998-99. An incense factory is also located in Changangkha, named Poe Nado.[22] Langjupakha is a northeastern district of Thimphu. Located on the eastern bank of the Wang Chuu it contains the Royal Banquet Hall, SAARC building and National Assembly and Centre for Bhutan Studies.[19] SONY VAIO VGN-AR230G laptop keyboard

The SAARCC building in Thimphu was initially built for the purpose of holding the SAARC (South East Asia Association for Regional Cooperation) conference, in the early 1990s. It is located across the Wang Chuu River opposite to the Tashechho Dzong. This elegant structure is built in a fusion of Bhutanese and modern architecture with high tech facilities. It presently houses the Ministries of Planning and Foreign Affairs. SONY VAIO VGN-AR250G laptop keyboard

The National Assembly, which used to meet in the Tashechhoe Dzong until 1993, is now held in this building in an elaborately decorated assembly hall at the end of two long decorated corridors. The National Assembly meets here twice a year. The banquet hall is also close by.[25] SONY VAIO VGN-AR270 laptop keyboard

Motithang is a north-western district of Thimphu. The Chubachu River divides the district from Kawajangsa further north andChubachu district lies to the east. SONY VAIO VGN-CR29XN laptop keyboard

Meaning "the meadow of pearls", the area only developed as a residential area in the 1980s, following the initial establishment of the Motithang Hotel in 1974, on the occasion of the coronation of Jigme Singye Wangchuck.[22] At the time, the hotel was located in the middle of forest, separated from the city by farmland but today this area has grown up with houses and gardens. SONY 147859712 laptop keyboard

Aside from the Motithang Hotel, the district contains several notable state guest houses such as the Kungacholing and Lhundupling, Rapten Apartments and theAmankora Thimphu.[22] It also contains the National Commission for Cultural Affairs, a UNICEF station and several grocery stores, including the Lhatshog supermarket.[22] Schools include Motithang School and Jigme Namgyal School. Other buildings in Mottithang are the Royal Bodyguard Camp and the Youth Centre.[26] SONY VAIO VGN-NW100 laptop keyboard

There is also a notable takin wildlife sanctuary in the district, named Motithang Takin Preserve.

Sangyegang is a western district, north of the Chubachu River but south of Zilukha. It contains the Sangyegang Telecom Tower and a golf course to the east which expands north in the Zilukha part of the city.[19] SONY Vaio VGN-AW110J laptop keyboard

Thimphu was selected to be the capital of Bhutan in 1952 but was not officially established as capital of Bhutan until 1961. It was then a hamlet of a few houses built, around the Tashichhoe Dzong. The city has expanded slowly over the years along river banks and on high ground. Lower plains along the river have also been occupied. It was only after the country was opened for foreign visitors that it grew rapidly. Thimphu is now a metropolis of 79,185 people. SONY KFRMBA220A laptop keyboard

The city has all civic amenities such as well planned wide roads with traffic police controlling the traffic, banks, hotels and restaurants, institutions of arts, culture, media, sports and also the traditional dzongs, monasteries and chortens. Consequently, a boom in property value in Thimphu has been reported.[3][6][27][28] IBM ThinkPad T40p 2378 laptop keyboard

The residential area of the city constitutes 38.3% of the total area. In the non-residential area, 9.3% of the city consists of administrative buildings, 4% of commercial establishments, 10.1% is taken up by health, educational or institutional structures, 2% by industrial establishments and 3.8% by security.[27] The remaining 32.5% of the city constitutes dispersed open spaces with vacant lands, which need to be preserved in any future planning and expansion.[27] HP Pavilion tx1340ea laptop keyboard

The Thimphu Structure Plan is a modern urban development plan for the Thimphu city, evolved in 1998, with the objective of protecting the fragile ecology of the valley, including its rivers and forests. This planning was necessitated due to growth of automobiles and pressure on the public health infrastructure in the town centre, restrictions imposed on plot coverage and building heights. HP Pavilion dv6-2053eo laptop keyboard

The plan was approved by the Council of Ministers in 2003.[29] An elected body, the Thimphu Municipal Corporation, is implementing the plan, drawn up by the American architect Christopher Charles Benninger. This plan is estimated to cost more than $1 billion when completed.[29] HP Mini 110-3115sg laptop keyboard

Funds for implementation of the plan are being provided by theWorld Bank and the Asian Development Bank. There are some disputed areas between land owners and stakeholders, which has resulted in the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank requesting the Ministry of Works and Human Settlement (MOWHS) to resolve the issues through a process of the agreement, before further funds are released.[14][30][31] ACER 9Z.N3K82.01D laptop keyboard

The clear planning concepts that have been established within the 'Structured Plan' are: the Tashichheo Dzong, Wang Chuu and the streams, Green Hills and their Forest cover, monasteries, temples, chortens and prayer flags, the urban core, urban Villages and the urban corridor. The southern entrance of the city at Simtokha Dzong anchors the city limits with the Northern and Western limits of the Wang Chuu Valley.[31][32] HP Mini 110-3007tu laptop keyboard

Over the last 50 years, since its establishment as the capital of Bhutan, Thimphu city has witnessed expansion, initially at a slow pace, then rapidly after the country was opened up to the outside world in 1974 during the Coronation of the fourth King, Jigme Singye Wangchuck when international media were present, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

and which marked Bhutan's "debut appearance on the world stage." Broadly, the city's natural systems are under three categories namely, the natural (forest, bush cover, river, and watersheds), agricultural (orchards, rice paddies, grazing lands) and recreational (public open space, parks, stadium).[14] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

The urban expansion has seen structured development plans with the long term objective of making "Thimphu a dream city" by 2027.[28][31][33] The buildings have been built to retain ancient Bhutanese culture and architectural styles but with a measured and modulated blend of modern development, meeting requirements of national and civic administration and all basic civic amenities such as roads, water supply and drainage, hospitals, schools and colleges, electricity, media centres and so forth. TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard

The monuments or buildings of note are the sprawling Tashichho Dzong, built like a fortress, which is the centre of Bhutanese administration as well as monastic centre, the Memorial Chorten, Thimphu and the National Assembly of the newly formed parliamentary democracy within the Monarchic rule. The Palace of the King located to the north of the city, called theDechencholing Palace, the official residence of the King, is an impressive structure that provides a grand aerial view of the city.[3][6][28] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Rapid expansion following the pattern of rural exodus has resulted in considerable rebuilding in the city centre and mushrooming of suburban development elsewhere. Norzin Lam, the recently upgraded main thoroughfare, is lined with shops, restaurants, retail arcades and public buildings.[3][6][28] DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard

Within the core area of the city, there is a mix of apartment blocks, small family homes and family-owned stores. By regulation, all buildings are required to be designed in traditional style with Buddhist paintings and motifs. A lively weekend market near the river supplies meat, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

vegetables and tourist items. Most of the city's limited light industry is located south of the main bridge. Thimphu has a growing number of commercial services and offices, which provide for ever-growing local needs.[3][6][28] ACER TravelMate 4050 Laptop Keyboard

The traditional architectural monuments in Thimphu, as in the rest of Bhutan, are of typical Bhutanese architecture of monasteries, dzongs (most striking fortress type structures), chortens, gateways, Lhakhangs, other sacred places and royal palaces, which are the most distinctive architectural forms of Bhutan. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Prayer Flags, Mani Walls and Prayer Wheels present a propitious setting throughout the urban agglomerate of Thimphu. The most prominent architecturally elegant, traditional Bhutanese building structures in Thimphu are theTashichho Dzong, Drubthob Goemba (now the Zilluka nunnery), Tango Goempa or Cheri Goempa, the Memorial Chorten, Thimphu, Dechen Phodrang, and Changangkha Lhakhang, all vintage monuments with rich history. SONY Vaio PCG-K215Z Laptop Keyboard

These are further sanctified by the recent additions to the architectural excellence of buildings, a fusion of the traditional and modern architecture which are mostly post 1962, after Thimphu became the Capital of Bhutan and opened up for tourism under various Five Year Developmental Plans. The buildings under this category are the National Institute for Zorig Chusum, ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard

National Library, National Assembly cum SAARC Building, National Institute for Traditional Medicine, National Textile Museum, Voluntary Artists Studio, Royal Academy of Performing Arts, Telecom Tower and many more. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard"

Religion") located on the west bank of the Wang Chuu. The imposing white washed structure, as seen now, has undergone several renovations over the centuries following fires and earthquakes. Subsequent to introduction of the Drukpa Kargyu lineage by Lama Phajo and Zhabdrung acquiring the Dzong in 1641, the Dzong was renamed as Tashichhoe Dzong. SONY Vaio PCG-K315Z Laptop Keyboard

During this time the practice of using a Dzong both as a religious centre for lamas and administrative centre for civic administration was introduced. Apart from the throne room and offices of the King of Bhutan, as an administrative building, it houses the Central Secretariat, the offices of the ministries of Home Affairs and Finance. The National Assembly, which used to be located in the Dzong is now in a separate building called the SAARC building.[36] SONY Vaio PCG-K25 Laptop Keyboard

Simtokha Dzong

Simtokha Dzong, known as Sangak Zabdhon Phodrang (Palace of the Profound Meaning of Secret Mantras) is said to be the oldest surviving fortress cum monastery established in 1629 by Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, who unified Bhutan. It was attacked several times in the 17th century but survived and was refurbished repeatedly. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

It is a small dzong (only 60 metres (200 ft) square with gate on the southern direction), located about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to the south of Thimphu. It now houses one of the premier Dzongkha language learning institutes namely, "The Institute for Language and Culture Studies." Both monks and common people study here. Students who graduate from this school primarily become Dzongkha teachers.[37] HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard

Dechen Phodrang Monastery

Dechen Phrodrang means "Palace of Great Bliss." It is a Buddhist monastery located to the north of Thimphu. The Dzong located at the end of Gaden Lam was originally the site of Thimphu's original Tashichhoe Dzong. In 1971, it was converted into a monastic school with 450 student monks enrolled for eight-year courses. It has a staff of 15.[38] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard

The monastery contains a number of important historical Bhutanese artifacts including 12th century paintings monitored by UNESCO and a noted statue ofNamgyal on the upper floor.[39][40] In the downstairs chapel, there is a central Sakyamuni Buddha.[38] HP G62-459TX laptop keyboard

Dechencholing Palace

Dechencholing Palace (བདེ་ཆེན་ཆོས་གླིང་, Wylie: bde chen chos gling) is located to the northern end of the Thimphu valley on the east bank of the Thimphu Chuu. It was the residence of the late Royal Grandmother, popularly known as Gayum Phuntsho Choden Wangchuck. King Jigme Singye Wangchuck was born here on 11 November 1955, but currently makes his residence at the Samteling Palace (Royal Cottage).[41][42] ACER NSK-H3M1D laptop keyboard

The Tango Monastery is located to the north of Thimphu near Cheri Mountain. It was founded by Lama Gyalwa Lhanampa in the 13th century and built in its present form by Tenzin Rabgye, the 4th Temporal Ruler in 1688. According to local legend, the location of this monastery is the holy place where Avalokiteshvara revealed himself as "the self-emanated form of the Wrathful Hayagriva". SONY Vaio PCG-K215Z laptop keyboard

The location had been prophesised in Tibet.[43][44] In 1616, the Tibetan, Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, meditated in its cave. The self-emanated form of the wrathful Hayagriva is deified in the monastery. It belongs to the Drukpa Kagyu School of Buddhism in Bhutan. The word 'Tango' in Bhutanese language means "horse head". This name conforms to the main deity Hayagriva (local name Tandin) deified in the monastery.[45][46][47][48] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

Tango Monastery is built in the dzong fashion, and has a curved (semi-circular) outside wall and prominent main tower with recesses. It covers the caves where originally meditation and miracles were performed by saints from the 12th century onwards.[43][44][49] Behind the series of prayer wheels are engraved slates. Inside the courtyard is a gallery, illustrating the leaders of the Drukpa Kagyupa lineage.[44] HP Pavilion dv3-2360ee Laptop Keyboard

Cheri Monastery also called Chagri Dorjeden Monastery was established in 1620 by Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal; the first monastery established by him at a young age of 27. Zhabdrung spent three years in strict retreat at Chagri and resided there for many periods throughout the rest of his life. It was at Chagri in 1623 that he established the first Drukpa Kagyumonastic order in Bhutan. GATEWAY M-6846 Laptop Keyboard

The monastery, which is now a major teaching and retreat centre of the Southern Drukpa Kagyu order, is located at the northern end of Thimphu Valley, about 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) from the capital. It sits on a hill above the end of the road at Dodeyna and it takes about an hour's walk up the steep hill to reach the monastery from there. According to Bhutanese religious histories, SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

the place was first visited by Padmasambhava in the 8th century. In the 13th century, it was visited by Phajo Drugom Zhigpo, the Tibetan Lama who first established the Drukpa Kagyu tradition in Bhutan. There is a silver chorten inside the monastery that enshrines the ashes of Zhabdrung's father.[48][50] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

Buddha Dordenma

Further information: Buddha Dordenma statue

The Buddha Dordenma is a bronze statue, a 'Vajra Throne' Buddha, that is under construction amidst the ruins of Kuensel Phodrang, overlooking Thimphu city, about 100 metres (330 ft) above the Wang Chuu river bed. This location was the palace of Sherab Wangchuck, the 13th Desi Druk. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

It is a gigantic Shakyamuni Buddha statue under construction. The statue will house over one lakh (one hundred thousand) smaller Buddha statues, each of which, like the Buddha Dordenma itself, will be made of bronze and gilded in gold. Upon completion, it will be one of the largest Buddha rupas in the world, at a height of 51.5 metres (169 ft). The statue alone is being built at a cost of US$47 million, COMPAQ Presario CQ41-204TX Laptop Keyboard

by Aerosun Corporation of Nanjing, China, while the total cost of the Buddha Dordenma Project is well over US$100 million.The interior will accommodate 100,000 8-inch-tall and 25,000 12-inch-tall gilded Buddhas respectively. It is planned to be completed by October 2010.[51] Apart from commemorating the centennial of the Bhutanese monarchy, it fulfils two prophecies. In the 20th century, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

the renowned yogi Sonam Zangpo prophesied that a large statue of either Padmasambhava, Buddha or of a phurba would be built in the region "to bestow blessings, peace and happiness on the whole world". Additionally the statue is mentioned in the ancient terma of Guru Padmasambhava himself, said to date from approximately the 8th century, and recovered some 800 years ago by terton Pema Lingpa.[52][53] HP Pavilion DV6-1030us Laptop Keyboard

The Memorial Chorten, also known as the 'Thimphu Chorten', is a chorten in Thimphu located on Doeboom Lam in the southern-central part of the city near the main roundabout and Indian Military Hospital. The chorten that dominates the skyline of Thimphu was built in 1974 to honour the 3rd King of Bhutan, Jigme Dorji Wangchuck (1928–1972). This prominent landmark in the city has golden spires and bells.[3][44] In 2008, it underwent extensive renovation. HP Mini 210-1015TU Laptop Keyboard

This chorten is popularly known as "the most visible religious landmark in Bhutan".[54] It was consecrated by His Holiness, the Late Dudjom Rimpoche.[55] This chorten is unlike other chortens as it does not enshrine the mortal remains of the late King. Only the King's photo in a ceremonial dress adorns a hall in the ground floor.[54] The King, when he was alive, wanted to build "a chorten to represent the mind of the Buddha".[56] GATEWAY M-6823A Laptop Keyboard

 It is designed as a Tibetan style chorten, also called as the Jangchup Chorten, patterned on the design of a classical stupa, with a pyramidal pillar crowned by a crescent of Moon and Sun. The feature that is distinct here is the outward flaring of the rounded part to give the shape of a vase, rather than a dome shape.[55][57] The chorten depicts larger than life size images of tantric deities, with some 36 of them in erotic poses.[58] HP 441426-001 Laptop Keyboard

There are several other attractions in Thimphu such as the National Post Office, the Clock Tower Square and the Motithang Takin Preserve (an erstwhile Zoo). Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The National Post Office, located in the north wing of a large building on the Dremton Lam (Drentoen Lam), is where the famous Bhutan's Philatelic Bureau sells stamps and souvenir sheets of Bhutan stamps.[59] In view of their colourful presentation and limited issue, SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

stamp collectors all over the world know that Bhutan is the first country to diversify and export quality stamps; particularly, 3D stamps are collectors items. Old stamps are now sold for profit. An agency in New York sells to the collectors and it is also locally printed by the Government of Bhutan.[60] HP Compaq G50-102NR Laptop Keyboard

The Motithang Takin Preserve in Thimphu is a wildlife reserve area for takin, theNational Animal of Bhutan. Originally a mini-zoo, it was converted into a preserve when it was discovered that the animals refrained from inhabiting the surrounding forest even when set free. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

The reason for declaring the takin as a National Animal of Bhutan on 25 November 2005 (Budorcas taxicolor) is attributed to a legend of the animal's creation in Bhutan in the 15th century by Lama Drukpa Kunley. The King of Bhutan believed that it was improper for a Buddhist country to confine animals for religious and environmental reasons, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

so he ordered the closure of the mini-zoo and the release of the animals into the forest. However, the Takin remained rooted to the town and were seen straying in the streets of Thimphu in search of fodder. Hence, an exclusive preserve was created for them to live freely.[39][57][62] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Thimphu is the political and economic centre of Bhutan and the location of the central government. Agriculture and livestock contribute to 45% of the GNP. The use of hydropower plants to generate electricity has also substantially contributed to the economy. HP G42-366TX laptop keyboard

Tourism is also a contributor to the economy but its adoption is on a graduated scale maintaining a balance between development and modernization. India is its major trading partner with most of the electricity produced (90%) exported to India, with imports from India limited to 70%. The ngultrum (ISO 4217 code BTN) (Dzongkha: དངུལ་ཀྲམ) HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard

has been the currency of Bhutan since 1974. It is subdivided into 100 chhertum (called chetrums on coins until 1979). In 1974, the ngultrum was introduced as the Bhutanese currency replacing the rupee at par. The ngultrum is equal in value to the Indian rupee, since Bhutan's economy is largely dependent on Indian financial and other forms of assistance.[63] Although a city, Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

agriculture is still important to Thimphu and the surrounding district. Even around the royal palace are terraced fields. The main crops grown in the area are rice, corn (maize), and wheat and the lumbering trade is also important to the economy.[1] ACER Aspire 5051AWXC laptop keyboard

A morning market is held on the central square during weekends. These are the only days when the residents of Thimphu can buy fresh fruit and vegetables.[10] The inhabitants rely on the supermarkets for other provisions throughout the week. The market also sells yak butter, cheese, wooden bowls and fabrics. A number of cheap souvenirs from Nepal are also sold at the market. HP Pavilion DV9001EA laptop keyboard

Behind the open market, several shops sellChinese and Bangladeshi crockery, appliances, shoes, silks and carpets.[10] For many years merchants would come to the central square from all over Bhutan and market their goods and would sleep in the open air.[10] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

However, in 1986, platforms were erected and in 1989 covered market halls were built over the platforms. A special building for meat products was constructed on the north side of the market. In 2006, the handicrafts section was moved to the new stalls on the other side of the new bridge, built in the traditional style in 2005.[10] HP Pavilion dv6-3089la laptop keyboard

The Loden Foundation, Bhutan's first registered charity, has been based in Thimphu since 2007. It is run by a board of trustees composed of prominent citizens, and the foundation has a working team in the United Kingdom (UK). The organisation was established to support education and promote learning and entrepreneurship in Bhutan and other Himalayan areas and to promote Bhutanese culture and religion in other parts of the world.  HP Pavilion dv4-1201tu laptop keyboard

Initially, when Bhutan was opened up for Tourism in 1974, the Government-owned Tourism Corporation was set up in Thimphu to encourage and organise individual and group tours to destinations of cultural importance in Bhutan, concentrating on Buddhism, weaving, birds, nature and trekking, DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

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and any special package. This organization was privatised in 1994 and named as Bhutan Tourism Development Corporation. The corporation also owns and manages hotels and tourist lodges at all major tourist centres in Bhutan. It has its own fleet of cars and also interpreters in several international languages to cater to tourists of various denominations.[64] SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

The main street, Norzim Lam, contains a number of shops and small hotels and restaurants. The Bhutan Textile Museum, the National Library, the Peling Hotel, Wangchuck Hotel, the Chang Lam Plaza, the Art Cafe, the Khamsa Cafe, the Swiss Bakery, Yeedzin Guest House, the Mid-Point South Indian restaurant, HP 506782-001 Laptop Keyboard

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the Benez restaurant, the Bhutan Kitchen and the sports field are buildings of note around this street area.[66] Other notable hotels in the area include the elegant Druk Hotel, Druk Sherig Guesthouse, Hotel Jumolhari (noted for its Indian cuisine),Hotel Dragon Roots (established in 2004) and Hotel Senge. DELL Latitude E5500 Laptop Keyboard

Near the main square is a clock, decorated with dragons, which is now an open-air theatre site and art and craft stores and the Tashi supermarket. In the building in front of the old cinema there is a Chinese restaurant and trekking stores. Some of the grocery stores such as Sharchopa are noted for their cheeses, namely Bumthang and Gogona.[67]  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

The Drentoen Lam street is located off the main street and contains the post office and bank and administrative buildings and several music stores. Doebum Lam road runs parallel to the main Norzim Lam and also contains the Chamber of Commerce, Department of Tourism and the Ministry of Trade buildings and the odd bakery. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

In 2006, a new shopping district opened between Doebum Lam and Norzim Lam which includes the Zangdopelri shopping complex, the Phuntsho Pelri Hotel and Seasons, an Italian restaurant.[68] HP Mini 210-1170NR Laptop Keyboard

The Civic Administration of Thimphu city is the responsibility of the Thimphu Municipal Corporation (TMC). It was established in 1995 through a royal decree. It became an autonomous corporation in 1999, following the enactment of the Municipal Act of 1999. Its headquarters is at the Lungtenzampa zone of Thimphu. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

The corporation is headed by a mayor (currently Dasho Nima Wangdi) who is called Thrompon in Bhutanese language. The mayor is appointed by the Ministry of Works and Human Settlement (MoWHS). An executive committee comprising 17 members governs the corporation; 8 members are elected from 6 zones and 7 members are nominated from government organizations and meet nearly every 6 weeks.[71] ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard

However, its capacity to deal with the problems is hindered by lack of adequate staff (without any proportionate increase in staff strength to deal with its large jurisdiction) and its expenditure far outstrips the revenue earned.[72][73] In order to provide cost effective services, the Corporation (as the regulating body) has contemplated privatization of public services, particularly water supply, solid waste, sewerage and parking.[72][73] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Service oriented Municipal Corporations have been established in the two biggest urban centres in Bhutan namely, Thimphu and Phuentsholing. Thimphu Municipal Corporation (TMC) is the service organization that has the mandate for executing urban water supply and sanitation programmes in Thimphu city. TMC is an autonomous ‘Civic Body’ under the municipal charter granted in 2003, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

as per the Bhutan Municipal Act of 1999. However, the overall responsibility to formulate strategies and policies for human settlement in the country rests with the Ministry of Works and Human Settlement of the central government, as the nodal agency, with its subordinate Department of Urban Development and Engineering Services made responsible for executing urban water supply and sanitation programmes.[74] HP 502958-001 Laptop Keyboard

Access to potable water is available to 90% of the population in Thimphu, though water supply is intermittent, attributed to leakage and high consumer demand.[75] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

Conventional piped sewerage with lagoon treatment has been installed in the core areas of Thimphu with coverage of about 70%. However, the urban sanitation issues that have been flagged for action are: to ensure provision of flush toilets or latrines with proper septic tanks and soak pits in all new houses; TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard

dismantling VIP latrines and long drop toilets; to provide piped sewerage and wastewater treatment plants in all urban areas, allocation of funds for piped sewerage and treatment plant and awareness campaign on basic sanitation.[74][75] TOSHIBA Satellite L550-ST2743 laptop keyboard

Thimphu also has an organised waste collection and disposal system. However, the quantum of waste generation in the city, which has about 6,982 households and 1,000 institutions, was projected to double in the period 2000-2010. At present, the solid waste disposal is at the sanitary landfill site, which HP Pavilion DV7-3110tx laptop keyboard

Law and order in Thimphu and in the country as a whole are the responsibility of the Royal Bhutan Police (RBP), a nationalpolice branch of the armed forces, established in Thimphu in September 1965 when 555 personnel were reassigned from the Royal Bhutan Army. The organization is responsible for law and order, HP G61-465SL laptop keyboard

 traffic control, and crime prevention.[76][77] In 1988, a fingerprint bureau was established in Thimphu, for which a female second lieutenant received specialized training. Bhutan became a member of Interpol on 19 September 2005; since then, Interpol has maintained a National Central Bureau at RBP headquarters in Thimphu.[78] Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

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The RBP is headed by a chief of police who is under the control of the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs. He is assisted by a deputy chief of police. The headquarters of the RBP is located in the capital city of Thimphu and is divided into three branches directly under the chief of police.[79] HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard

The RBP has grouped districts into "ranges," which are under the administrative control of range police officers. A district police officer heads the police force in a district. There are a number of police stations, outposts, and checkpoints in a district; the highest-ranking officer is usually designated the officer in charge of that particular area. Thimphu district and the city fall under Range I.[79] Recruits are trained at the police training centres in Zilnon, Namgyeling–Thimphu, Jigmeling–Gelephu, and Tashigatshel–Chukha.[79][80] HP Pavilion DV7-3164cl laptop keyboard

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Basic health facilities are provided free of any charge to all citizens in Bhutan.[81][82] There are no private practitioners operating any clinics anywhere in Thimphu or Bhutan.[81] Every citizen is treated free of any charge including foreign tourists needing medical care.[81] ASUS F3L laptop keyboard

The health care centre established in Thimphu is the National Referral Hospital. 'Traditional Medicine' is also in vogue and the "Institute of Traditional Medicine" has been set up in Thimphu to promote this widely practiced herbal medical cure in rural areas of Bhutan.[81] HP Pavilion dv3-2155mx laptop keyboard

National Referral Hospital

The National Referral Hospital (full name Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Referral Hospital) in Thimphu was established in 1972 and is the main hospital in Bhutan. The National Referral Hospital provides free basic medical treatment as well as advanced surgeries and emergency services to citizens from all over the country.[82] HP Mini 110-3113eo Laptop Keyboard

The hospital provides sophisticated health evaluation and management services in the country and has facilities of CT and MRI diagnosis equipment and improved lab services. The hospital has a library with many current textbooks.[83] The hospital is one of five medical service centres within Thimphu. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The others are: two Indian hospitals (DANTAK hospital at Semtokha and IMTRAT hospital in the main town), the BHU in Dechencholing and the Outreach Clinic inMotithang.[84] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Institute of Traditional Medicine

The Institute of Traditional Medicine was set up in 1979 with assistance from World Health Organization (WHO) to develop and popularise Bhutanese herbal medicine, which has been used by the rural people in Bhutan for many centuries. The Institute is located on a hill promontory above the Thimpu town. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

It is a semi-wooden structure built colourfully like a "Manor House". Traditionally, Bhutanese medicine has been influenced by traditional Tibetan medicine and also some aspects of Indian medicine, particularly the "Three Humors of bile, wind and phlegm" that "dictates the state of our physical and spiritual health."  ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

The Institute is well manned by scientists who claim that they have now developed a "mixture of five herbs that could "possess spermogenitic powers" (a kind of aherbal viagra), which is under testing before development and marketing on a commercial basis. The main herb used is stated to be Cordyceps sinensis(caterpillar fungus), whose productive buds are available in the hills of Bhutan.[85] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The culture of Bhutan is fully reflected in the capital city in respect of literature, religion, customs, and national dress code, the monastic practices of the monasteries, music, dance, literature and in the media. Modernity has been blended without sacrificing on the traditional Buddhist ethos.[86] HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard

Literature

Ancient literature of Bhutan is preserved in the National Library. The script used in Bhutanese literature is in the Bhutanese script (though evolved from Tibetan script) known as jo yig developed in the 16th century. The printing process of these books on handmade paper and its binding are display items at the National Library.  ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

Modern literature is still evolving and a religious biography of women titled delog is a popular religious work. There are many writers who write in English now, mostly short stories and collection of folk tales of Bhutan; a popular author is Kunzang Choeden.[87] Lenovo 45N2240 Laptop Keyboard

Royal Academy of Performing Arts

The Royal Academy of Performing Arts (RAPA), located in Thimphu, was established at the initiative of late King, Jigme Dorji Wangchuck in 1954, with the basic objective of preserving and promoting performing arts traditions of Bhutan. In 1967, it was institutionalised as an academy and the Royal Dance troupe was its creation. The institution provides training in national dance forms of Bhutan such as mask dances and also preserves the folk dance heritage.  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

The professional dancers of the Academy hold performances during the annual Thimphu Tsechu dance festival that is held in the premises of the Tashichhoe Dzong. Performances lasting for one hour are also arranged on specially requested occasions. The present activities at the academy are being reorganised with further expansion of its programs, including curriculum development for teaching. FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 Laptop Keyboard

Established in 1967, built in the style of a traditional temple, the National Library houses many ancient Dzonghka andTibetan texts. It has been planned as "a major scriptural repository and research facility dedicated to the preservation and promotion of the rich literary, cultural and religious heritage" of Bhutan. The building is very lavishly decorated and is said to represent the finest vibrant Bhutanese architecture.[89] TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard

On the ground floor of this building, among the highly prized collections, there is a book reported to be the heaviest in the world, weighing 59 kilograms (130 lb), known as "Bhutan:a Visual Odyssey Across the Last Himalayan Kingdom ".[90] Traditional books and historic manuscripts written in Tibetan style, on handmade paper bound between wooden flats and tied together are also preserved here. HP 518965-001 Laptop Keyboard

The library also houses an old printing press that was used for printing books and prayer flags. The library is also circumambulated by devotees as a mark of worship by the devout as it enshrines holy books and images of Bhutan's famous people such as the Zhabdrung, Namgyal, Pema Linga and Guru Rinpoche. Also on display here are a model of the Punakha Dzong and the Chorten architecture.[3][89][91] HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard

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Music

Further information: Music of Bhutan

The music of Bhutan has traditional genres such as zhungdra and boedra. The influence of Drukpa Buddhism and Buddhist musicon Bhutanese culture is important. Many folk songs and chanting styles are derived from Drukpa music. In the 17th century, during the reign of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal (1594–1652) great blossoming of folk music and dance (cham) took place. TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

Instruments dating to this time include the lingm (flute), dramnyen (lute) and chiwang(fiddle). Ynagchen is an instrument made from hollow wood with 72 strings that are "struck with two bamboo sticks." Rigsar music has become popular in Thimphu and Bhutan and is performed on electric piano and synthesiser. It is, however, a fusion of traditional Bhutanese and Tibetan tunes and is also influenced by Hindi music. ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The music albums are produced by many popular Bhutanese male and female singers not only in Rigsar music but also in traditional folk songs and religious songs. Four music CDs of religious folk music, called the 'Tibetan Buddhist Rites' released by the monasteries with a recording sung by a manip (a traveling ascetic) that reminisces the arrival of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal in Bhutan in the 17th century is popular.[87][92] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

To promote music in Bhutan, two music schools have been established in Thimphu, namely, the Kilu Music School and the recently established the Himalayan School of Music. The Kilu Music School, established in March 2005, is the first of its kind in Thimpu where students are taught the essentials of music such as: to practice their music reading and writing skills, and to improve their listening skills.[93][94] SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

Kheng Sonam Dorji of Kaktong village of Zhemgang District, is a renowned and committed musician, vocalist, and composer who resides in Thimphu. He plays several instruments native to Bhutan and India. ASUS F3M Laptop Keyboard

He learnt drangyen under the elders of Bhutanese folk tradition. His contributions to Bhutanese culture include a string of hit Rigsar (Bhutanese pop) albums and the sound tracks of the popular Bhutanese film, "Travellers and Magicians (2004)". He also participated at the Smithsonian's Festival of American Folklife (2008).[95] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Films made in Bhutan are very few. Quality of films produced is in a stage of improvement. National Film awards are presented in functions held in Thimphu to encourage Bhutanese film making. Muti Thrishing is a popular film which has won many National awards recently.  HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard

A Bhutanese film "The Cup" made by a Bhutanese film maker was nominated for the 2000 Academy Awards. The only cinema hall in Thimphu, the Luger Cinema Hall, screens Bhutanese and Hindi movies; occasionally English/foreign-language movies are also screened here.[87][96] DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard

Thimphu Tsechu Festival

Further information: Tsechu

Mask dances, popularly known as Cham dances, are performed in the courtyards of the Tashichhoe Dzong in Thimphu during the four-day Tsechu festival, held every year during Autumn (September/October) on dates corresponding to the Bhutanese calendar.[3] Tsechu means "tenth", so the festival is held on the 10th day of Bhutanese month. It is a religious folk dance form of Drukpa Buddhism, HP Pavilion dv3-2011tx Laptop Keyboard

which was established in 1670.[97][98] Tsechus are a series of dances performed by monks and also trained dance troupes to honour the deeds of Padmasambahva alias Guru Rinpoche. They are also social events when people turn up in their best attire, with women particularly bejeweled, and large numbers witness the ritual dances and also absorb the religious teachings on Buddhism. HP Pavilion DV6-1104au Laptop Keyboard

It is performed in each district in Bhutan at different periods; the Thimphu Tsechu and the Paro Tsechu are the most popular. The Thimphu Tsechu, held for four days is usually attended by the Royal family and the Chief Abbot of Bhutan and other government officials. SONY VAIO VGN-AR200 laptop keyboard

The opening day and concluding days are important and each day has a set programme. These colourfully costumed, masked dances (performed mostly by monks) typically are moral vignettes, or based on incidents from the life of the 9th century Nyingmapa teacher Padmasambhava and other saints. Compaq Presario CQ71-240EB laptop keyboard

The arts and crafts of Bhutan that represents the exclusive "spirit and identity of the Himalayan kingdom’ is defined as the art ofZorig Chosum, which means the "thirteen arts and crafts of Bhutan".HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard

The arts and crafts produced in Thimphu and other places in Bhutan include textiles, paintings, sculptures, paper making, wood carving, sword making and blacksmithing, boot making, bamboo craft, bow and arrow making and jewelry.[99]:[35][99] ACER TravelMate 2480 laptop keyboard

National Institute of Zorig Chusum

The National Institute of Zorig Chusum is the centre for Bhutanese Art education. It was set up by the Government of Bhutan with the sole objective of preserving the rich culture and tradition of Bhutan and training students in all traditional art forms. Painting is the main theme of the institute, TOSHIBA Satellite M105-SP3027 laptop keyboard

which provides 4–6 years of training in Bhutanese traditional art forms. The curricula cover a comprehensive course of drawing, painting, wood carving, embroidery, and carving of statues. Images of Buddha are a popular painting done here.[35] HP Mini 110-1115CA laptop keyboard

Mahayana Buddhism is the state religion and the dominant ethnic group is Drukpa of Kagyu Buddhism, while in southern BhutanHindus of Nepali ethnicity are dominant. The main monastic body with membership of 1,160 monks is headed by a chief abbot (presently Je Khenpo) who spends six months in Tashechhoe Dzong in Thimphu and the other six months in Punakha. HP Pavilion DV7-2209tx laptop keyboard

A Council of Ecclesiastical Affairs, under the chairmanship of the chief abbot, is located in Thimphu, which is responsible for the management of the National Memorial Chorten in Thimphu, and all Buddhist meditation centres, schools of Buddhist studies and also central and district monastic bodies. The day-to-day affairs of the council are under the charge of the chief abbot.[100] HP G72-262NR laptop keyboard

It was only in the 1960s that roads were built in Bhutan and Thimphu when the Third King of Bhutan took the initiative after receiving education in it. Prior to that, education was limited to monastic teachings in monasteries, except for a few privileged people who went to Darjeeling to receive western-type education. Dzongkha is compulsory in all schools. Schools are co-educational and education is not compulsory but school education is virtually free.[101] HP Mini 110-1134CL laptop keyboard

Now, education has spread to all parts of the country. Thimphu has several educational institutions from schooling level to the college level in several disciplines. There are more private schools in Thimphu than in any other place in Bhutan, which are all under the control of the Department of Education. The National Training Authority administers three technical institutes. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

The Royal University of Bhutan (known as the RUB) located in the city was established in 2003.[101][102] This university includes several colleges including the Institute for Language and Culture Studies (ILCS) which provides training to undergraduate students in national language, DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

culture and traditions of Bhutan at Simtokha Dzong.[88] Students who graduate from this school primarily become Dzongkha teachers.[37][88] Also included is the Royal Institute of Health Sciences (RIHS), which provides training to nurses and technicians,[88] and the Royal Institute of Management (RIM) which provides training in administrative and financial management to mid-level manager.[88]  DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

Aside from the government run colleges, private schools and colleges have also been set up in Thimphu and other regions of the country. DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

With World Bank funding, an IT Park is proposed in an area of 50,000 square feet (4,600 m2), in a 1,700 acres (690 ha) land at Babesa, within Thimphu's municipal limits. This facility shall have an incubation centre, shared technology centre and data centre without any manufacturing facility. It is a joint venture project of Thimphu Tech Park Pvt. Ltd., of Assetz Property Group Pvt. Ltd., of Singapore and Druk Holding & Investments Ltd of Bhutan. ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard

The layout and position of the city roads in Thimpu are dictated by its unique topography. Most premier roads, typically wide, are aligned in a north-south direction, parallel to the river; the most important artery is the Norzin Lam (Lam - road/street). Branch roads wind along the hill slopes leading to residential areas. Foot paths are also well laid with access to the commercial areas and the Wang Chuu River. SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

However, its entry point is at a narrow location from the south crossed by a wooden bridge. South of the bridge is the road to Paro, Punakha, Wangdi Phodrong, Tongsa and further to the east and north.[14][27]The expressway which has been built has had a large impact on development, shifting land values, decreasing transportation costs, and increasing potential growth opportunity in the southern part of the valley.[14] HP Probook 4510S Laptop Keyboard

Bhutan Transport Corporation runs a regular bus service from Siliguri (which along with nearby New Jalpaiguri station are the nearest railheads) in India. It takes about four hours to reach Phuentsholing. From there, buses ply to Thimphu every day. Taxis could also be hired to Thimphu.[104] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The unique aspect of Thimphu roads and the traffic control over the road net work is that it is one of the two national capitals in Asia that does not havetraffic lights (the other is Pyongyang, North Korea). HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Local authorities had installed a set of lights but before they became operational the lights were removed. Instead of traffic lights, the city takes pride in its traffic police that directs the oncoming traffic with their dance-like movement of their arms and hands.[3][14] City Bus services operate throughout the day. There are plans to introduce tram services in the city.[3] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Thimphu does not have an airport. However, it is served by the only international airport of Bhutan at Paro, which is about 54 kilometres (34 mi) away by road. Druk Air had its headquarters in Thimphu but now there is only a branch office.[3] Druk Air is the only airline flying into Bhutan excluding charter flights by Buddha Air and is a lifeline with the outside world for the Bhutanese people,[105] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

also supporting emerging inbound tourism and export markets.[106][107][108] The airline has in recent times been criticised for its unreliability, particularly from the Bhutanese tourism industry which is still in its infancy, and regards the very company upon which it relies as its biggest threat.[106] Tashi Air is a private airline recently launched in the country.  HP AETT3U00010 Laptop Keyboard

The Bhutan Olympic Committee was created in November 1983 with the King of Bhutan as its President, with its headquarters in Thimphu. Following this recognition, Bhutan participated for the first time in the 1984 Olympic Games held in Los Angeles when three men and three women archers represented Bhutan.[109][110] SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

 For each Olympic Summer Games since 1984, Bhutan has fielded male and female archers. They have never competed in the Winter Games or the other events of the Summer Games; they also have never won an Olympic medal.[111][112] ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard

Archery (datse) is the national sport of Bhutan, which is played not only with traditional bows and arrows but also with modern archery techniques at the Changlimithang Sports and Archery Stadium in Thimphu. Archery is central to the cultural identity of the nation and as a result all tournaments are started with a ceremony. HP Mini 110-1051TU Laptop Keyboard

Women come to witness the sports in their colourful best attire and cheer their favorite teams. Men stand close to the target and taunt the players, if targets are missed. The targets are spaced at 140 m intervals. Teams which win the tournaments celebrate with their supporters by singing and performing a dance jig.[113] Archery is organized nationally within the Bhutan Archery Federation.[114]  DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Since monks are not permitted to participate in archery they indulge in another popular sports called the daygo- a stone throwing sport, which involves throwing flat circular stone like a discus.[113] Another shotput type game known as pungdo is popular and is also played with big and heavy stones. One more typical Bhutanese game is the dart game, known locally asKhuru, which is played with short targets. The darts used in the game are made of a wood block set with a nail with fins of chicken feather.[113] HP G62x-400 CTO Laptop Keyboard

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Many modern sports are also played in the national stadium in Thimphu, in addition to locally popular sports mentioned earlier. The sports activities in vogue are football (Drukstar is the popular team in Thimphu), basketball, golf, Kwon do(Bhutan earned a gold medal in this game in the South Asia Federation Games in 2004,[115] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

squash, golf (popular among the elite middle class) and in recent years cricket. Thimphu has 12 cricket teams and two small golf courses; one near the India House and the other between the Tashichhoe Dzong and the National Library, known as the Royal Thimphu Golf Course (a nine hole course), established at the initiative of King Jigme Dorji Wangchuk in 1971.[115] HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Changlimithang Stadium, a multi-purpose stadium in Thimphu, is the National Stadium. The stadium that was built in 1974 to celebrate the Coronation of the fourth Druk Gyalpo, King Jigme Singye Wangchuck in 1974. It had a capacity to hold 10,000 spectators. However, it was completely refurbished in 2007 to accommodate 25,000 spectators for the Centenary of Wangchuk Dynasty rule in Bhutan and also the Coronation Celebrations of the fifth king of Bhutan, SONY VAIO VGN-NW15G/T Laptop Keyboard

Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck, held on November 6, 2008. It now covers an area of about11 hectares (27 acres). This was also the location where national celebrations were held from the time of the 3rd King of Bhutan. Historicity of the Changlimithang ground is traced to the 1885 battle that established the political supremacy of Gongsar Ugyen Wangchuck, Bhutan's first king. HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard

Adjacent to the main stadium are the football ground, the cricket field and archery range. Numerous archery tournaments are held here with both the imported compound bows and traditional bamboo bows. The main stadium is used for multipurpose sports and other functions.[113][116][117] HP G71-441NR Laptop Keyboard

A documentary film known as "The Other Final" was filmed based on a special football match arranged by FIFA that was played between the 202nd placed (out of 203 worldwide) Bhutan and 203rd-ranked Montserrat.[112] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

The Bhutan Broadcasting Service was established in 1973 as a radio service, broadcasting in short wave nationally, and on theFM band, in Thimphu. It is run by the Government of Bhutan. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The service started television broadcasts and satellite channels in 1999, during the coronation of the fourth king of Bhutan. Bhutan was then the last country in the world to introduce television. As part of the King's modernization program, cable television was introduced shortly after.[118] In 2002, there were 42 TV channels under two cable operators.[100] HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

Kuensel was first started in Thimphu as a government bulletin in 1965, and then became a national weekly in 1986 and was the only newspaper in Bhutan until 2006 when two other news papers namely, the Bhutan Times and Bhutan Observer, were introduced.Kuensel, which was initially government owned, became an autonomous corporation incorporating the Royal Government Press, in 1992. It publishes the newspaper Kuensel in English, Nepali and Dzongkha (Bhutanese) languages.[100][119] HP G61-409CA Laptop Keyboard

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Radio Valley FM. 99.9, a new private radio station has started broadcasting in Thimphu. This is in addition to the older stations of BBS and Kuzoo FM.[118] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

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Yangon

Yangon (Burmese: ရန်ကုန်; MLCTS: rankun mrui, pronounced: [jàɴɡòʊɴ mjo̰]; also known as Rangoon, literally: "End of Strife") is a former capital of Burma (Myanmar) and the capital of Yangon Region. Although the military government has officially relocated the capital to Naypyidaw since March 2006,[3] Yangon, with a population of over four million, continues to be the country's largest city and the most important commercial centre. HP 506782-001 Laptop Keyboard

Although Yangon's infrastructure is undeveloped compared to those of other major cities in Southeast Asia, it has the largest number of colonial buildings in the region today.[4] While many high-rise residential and commercial buildings have been constructed or renovated throughout downtown and Greater Yangon in the past two decades, most satellite towns that ring the city continue to be deeply impoverished. GATEWAY M-1625 Laptop Keyboard

Yangon was founded as Dagon in the early 11th century (circa 1028–1043) by the Mon, who dominated Lower Burma at that time.[5] Dagon was a small fishing village centred about the Shwedagon Pagoda. In 1755, King Alaungpaya conquered Dagon, renamed it "Yangon", and added settlements around Dagon. DELL Latitude E5500 Laptop Keyboard

The British captured Yangon during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26), but returned it to Burmese administration after the war. The city was destroyed by a fire in 1841.[6]  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

The British seized Yangon and all of Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, and subsequently transformed Yangon into the commercial and political hub of British Burma. Based on the design by army engineer Lt. Alexander Fraser, the British constructed a new city on a grid plan on delta land, bounded to the east by the Pazundaung Creek and to the south and west by the Yangon River. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Yangon became the capital of all British Burma after the British had captured Upper Burma in the Third Anglo-Burmese War of 1885. By the 1890s Yangon's increasing population and commerce gave birth to prosperous residential suburbs to the north of Royal Lake (Kandawgyi) and Inya Lake.[7] The British also established hospitals including Rangoon General Hospital and colleges includingRangoon University. HP Mini 210-1170NR Laptop Keyboard

Colonial Yangon, with its spacious parks and lakes and mix of modern buildings and traditional wooden architecture, was known as "the garden city of the East."[7] By the early 20th century, Yangon had public services and infrastructure on par with London.[8] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

Before World War II, about 55% of Yangon's population of 500,000 was Indian or South Asian, and only about a third was Bamar(Burman).[9] Karens, the Chinese, the Anglo-Burmese and others made up the rest. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

After World War I, Yangon became the epicentre of Burmese independence movement, with leftist Rangoon University students leading the way. Three nationwide strikes against the British Empire in 1920, 1936 and 1938 all began in Yangon. Yangon was under Japanese occupation (1942–45), and incurred heavy damage during World War II. The city was retaken by the Allies in May 1945. ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard

Yangon became the capital of Union of Burma on 4 January 1948 when the country regained independence from the British Empire. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Contemporary Yangon

Soon after Burma's independence in 1948, many colonial names of streets and parks were changed to more nationalistic Burmese names. In 1989, the current military junta changed the city's English name to "Yangon", along with many other changes in English transliteration of Burmese names. (The changes have not been accepted by many Burmese who consider the junta unfit to make such changes, nor by many publications, news bureaux including, most notably, the BBC and foreign nations including the United Kingdom and United States.)[10][11] Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

Since independence, Yangon has expanded outwards. Successive governments have built satellite towns such as Thaketa, North Okkalapa and South Okkalapa in the 1950s to Hlaingthaya, Shwepyitha and South Dagon in the 1980s.[6] Today, Greater Yangon encompasses an area covering nearly 600 square kilometres (230 sq mi).[1] HP 502958-001 Laptop Keyboard

During Ne Win's isolationist rule (1962–88), Yangon's infrastructure deteriorated through poor maintenance and did not keep up with its increasing population. In the 1990s, the current military government's more open market policies attracted domestic and foreign investment, bringing a modicum of modernity to the city's infrastructure. Some inner city residents were forcibly relocated to new satellite towns. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Many colonial-period buildings were demolished to make way for high-rise hotels, office buildings, and shopping malls,[12] leading the city government to place about 200 notable colonial-period buildings under the Yangon City Heritage List in 1996.[13] Major building programs have resulted in six new bridges and five new highways linking the city to its industrial back country.[14][15][16] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

Still, much of Yangon remains without basic municipal services such as 24-hour electricity and regular garbage collection.

Yangon has become much more indigenous Burmese in its ethnic make-up since independence. After independence, many South Asians and Anglo-Burmese left. Many more South Asians were forced to leave during the 1960s by Ne Win's xenophobic government.[9] Nevertheless, sizable South Asian and Chinese communities still exist in Yangon. The Anglo-Burmese have effectively disappeared, having left the country or intermarried with other Burmese groups. HP Compaq G50-102NR Laptop Keyboard

Yangon was the centre of major anti-government protests in 1974, 1988 and 2007. The 1988 People Power Uprising resulted in the deaths of hundreds, if not thousands of Burmese civilians, many in Yangoon where hundreds of thousands of people flooded into the streets of the then capital city. The Saffron Revolution saw mass shootings and the use of crematoria in Yangoon by the Burmese government to erase evidence of their crimes against monks, unarmed protesters, journalists and students.[17] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

The city's streets saw bloodshed each time as protesters were gunned down by the government.

In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis hit Yangon. While the city had few human casualties, three quarters of Yangon's industrial infrastructure was destroyed or damaged, with losses estimated at US$800 million.[18] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

In November 2005, the military government designated Naypyidaw, 320 kilometres (199 mi) north of Yangon, as the new administrative capital, and subsequently moved much of the government to the newly developed city. At any rate, Yangon remains the largest city, and the most important commercial centre of Burma. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Yangon has a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification system.[19] The city features a lengthy rainy season from May through October where a substantial amount of rainfall is received; and a dry season from November through April, where little rainfall is seen. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard

It's primarily due to the heavy precipitation received during the rainy season that Yangon falls under the tropical monsoon climate category. During the course of the year, average temperatures show little variance, with average highs ranging from 29 to 36 °C (84 to 97 °F) and average lows ranging from 18 to 25 °C (64 to 77 °F). HP Pavilion DV7-3164cl laptop keyboard

Until the mid-1990s, Yangon remained largely constrained to its traditional peninsula setting between the Bago, Yangon and Hlaing rivers. People moved in, but little of the city moved out. Maps from 1944 show little development north of Inya Lake and areas that are now layered in cement and stacked with houses were then virtual backwaters. GATEWAY MX3228 laptop keyboard

Since the late 1980s, however, the city began a rapid spread north to where Yangon International airport now stands. But the result is a stretching tail on the city, with the downtown area well removed from its geographic centre.[23] ASUS F3L laptop keyboard

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 The city's area has steadily increased from 72.52 square kilometres (28.00 sq mi) in 1901 to 86.2 square kilometres (33.3 sq mi) in 1940 to 208.51 square kilometres (80.51 sq mi) in 1974, to 346.13 square kilometres (133.64 sq mi) in 1985, and to 598.75 square kilometres (231.18 sq mi) in 2008.[1][24] HP Pavilion dv3-2155mx laptop keyboard

Downtown Yangon is known for its leafy avenues and fin-de-siècle architecture.[25] The former British colonial capital has the highest number of colonial period buildings in Southeast Asia.[4] Downtown Yangon is still mainly made up of decaying colonial buildings. The former High Court, the former Secretariat buildings, the former St. Paul's English High School and the Strand Hotel are excellent examples of the bygone era. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Most downtown buildings from this era are four-story mix-use (residential and commercial) buildings with 14-foot (4.3 m) ceilings, allowing for the construction of mezzanines. Despite their less-than-perfect conditions, the buildings remain highly sought after and most expensive in the city's property market.[26] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In 1996, the Yangon City Development Committee created a Yangon City Heritage List of old buildings and structures in the city that cannot be modified or torn down without approval.[27] In 2012, the city of Yangon imposed a 50 year moratorium on demolition of buildings older than 50 years.[28] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

The Yangon Heritage Trust, an NGO started by Thant Myint-U, aims to create heritage areas in Downtown, and attract investors to renovate buildings for commercial use.[28]  ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

A latter day hallmark of Yangon is the eight-story apartment building. (In Yangon parlance, a building with no elevators(lifts) is called an apartment building and one with elevators is called a condominium.[29] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Condos which have to invest in a local power generator to ensure 24-hour electricity for the elevators are beyond the reach of most Yangonites.) Found throughout the city in various forms, eight-story apartment buildings provide relatively inexpensive housing for many Yangonites. HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard

The apartments are usually eight stories high (including the ground floor) mainly because city regulations, until February 2008, required that all buildings higher than 75 feet (23 m) or eight stories install elevators).[30]  ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

The current code calls for elevators in buildings higher than 62 feet (19 m) or six stories, likely ushering in the era of the six-story apartment building. Although most apartment buildings were built only within the last 20 years, they look much older and rundown due to shoddy construction and lack of proper maintenance. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Unlike other major Asian cities, Yangon does not have any skyscrapers. Aside from a few high-rise hotels and office towers downtown, most high-rise buildings (usually 10 stories and up) are "condos" scattered across prosperous neighborhoods north of downtown such as Bahan, Dagon, Kamayut and Mayangon. The tallest building in Yangon, Pyay Gardens, is a 25-story condo in the city’s north.  ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard

Older satellite towns such as Thaketa, North Okkalapa and South Okkalapa are lined mostly with one to two story detached houses with access to the city's electricity grid. Newer satellite towns such as North Dagon and South Dagon are still essentially slums in a grid layout. The satellite towns—old or new—receive little or no municipal services. SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

The east-west grid of downtown Yangon was laid out by British military engineers Fraser and Montgomerie after the Second Anglo-Burmese War.[8] The city was later developed by the Public Works Department and Bengal Corps of Engineers. The pattern of south to north roads is as follows: TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

one broad 100-foot (30 m) wide broad road, two narrow streets, one mid-size street, two more narrow streets, and then another 100-foot (30 m) wide broad road. This order is repeated from west to east. The narrow streets are numbered; the medium and broad roads are named. ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

For example, the 100-foot (30 m) Lanmadaw Road is followed by 30-foot (9.1 m)-wide 17th and 18th streets then the medium 50-foot (15 m) Sint-Oh-Dan Road, the 30-foot 19th and 20th streets, followed by another 100-foot (30 m) wide Latha Road, followed again by the two numbered small roads 21st and 22nd streets, and so on. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

The roads running parallel west to east were the Strand Road, Merchant Road, Maha Bandula (née Dalhousie) Road, Anawrahta (Fraser) Road, and Bogyoke Aung San (Montgomerie) Road. SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

The largest and best maintained parks in Yangon are located around Shwedagon Pagoda. To the southeast of the gilded stupa is the most popular recreational area in the city – Kandawgyi Lake. The 150-acre (61-ha) lake is surrounded by the 110-acre (45-ha) Kandawgyi Nature Park,[31] and the 69.25-acre (28-ha) Yangon Zoological Gardens, ASUS F3M Laptop Keyboard

which consists of a zoo, an aquarium and an amusement park.[32] West of the pagoda towards the former Hluttaw (Parliament) complex is the 130-acre (53-ha)People’s Square and People's Park, (the former parading ground on important national days when Yangon was the capital.)[33]A few miles north of the pagoda lies the 37-acre (15-ha) Inya Lake Park – a favorite hangout place of Yangon University students, and a well-known place of romance in Burmese popular culture. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Hlawga National Park and Allied War Memorial at the outskirts of the city are popular day-trip destinations with the well-to-do and tourists.  HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard

Yangon is administered by the Yangon City Development Committee (YCDC). YCDC also coordinates urban planning.[34] The city is divided into four districts. The districts combined have a total of 33 townships. DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard

The current mayor of Yangon is Hla Myint. Each township is administered by a committee of township leaders, who make decisions regarding city beautification and infrastructure. Myo-thit (lit. "New Towns", or satellite towns) are not within such jurisdictions. HP Pavilion dv3-2011tx Laptop Keyboard

Yangon is the most populous city by far in Burma although estimates of the size of its population vary widely. (All population figures are estimates since no official census has been conducted in Burma since 1983.) A UN estimate puts the population as 4.35 million in 2010 but a 2009 U.S. State Department estimate puts it at 5.5 million.[2][47] TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard

The U.S. State Department's estimate is probably closer to the real number since the UN number is a straight-line projection, and does not appear to take the expansion of city limits in the past two decades into account. The city's population grew sharply after 1948 as many people (mainly, the indigenous Burmese) from other parts of the country moved into the newly built satellite towns of North Okkalapa, South Okkalapa, TOSHIBA Satellite L550-ST2743 laptop keyboard

and Thaketa in the 1950s and East Dagon, North Dagon and South Dagon in the 1990s. Immigrants have founded their regional associations (such as Mandalay Association, Mawlamyaing Association, etc.) in Yangon for networking purposes. The government's decision to move the nation's administrative capital to Naypyidaw has drained an unknown number of civil servants away from Yangon. HP Pavilion DV7-3110tx laptop keyboard

Yangon is the most ethnically diverse city in the country. While Indians formed the slight majority prior to World War II,[9] today, the majority of the population is of Bamar (Burman) descent. Large communities of Indians/South Asians and the Chinese still exist especially in the traditional downtown neighborhoods. HP G61-465SL laptop keyboard

Intermarriage between ethnic groups—especially between the Bamar and the Chinese, and the Bamar and other indigenous Burmese—is common. A large number of Rakhine and Karen live in the city. Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

Burmese is the principal language of the city. English is by far the preferred second language of the educated class. In recent years, however, the prospect of overseas job opportunities has enticed some to study other languages: Mandarin Chinese is most popular, followed by Japanese, French, and Korean.[48] SONY Vaio PCG-K315M laptop keyboard

Yangon is the country's hub for the movie, music, advertising, newspaper and book publishing industries. All media is heavily regulated by the military government. Television broadcasting is off limits to the private sector. All media content must first be approved by the government's media censor board, Press Scrutiny and Registration Division.[49] TOSHIBA Satellite M105-SP3027 laptop keyboard

Most television channels in the country are broadcast from Yangon. TV Myanmar and Myawaddy TV are the two main channels, providing Burmese-language programming in news and entertainment. Other special interest channels are MWD-1 and MWD-2, MRTV-3, HP Mini 110-1115CA laptop keyboard

the English-language channel that targets overseas audiences via satellite and via Internet, MRTV-4 and Channel 7 are with a focus on non-formal education programs and movies, and Movie 5, a pay-TV channel specializing in broadcasting foreign movies.[50] HP Pavilion DV7-2209tx laptop keyboard

Yangon has three radio stations. Myanmar Radio National Service is the national radio service and broadcasts mostly in Burmese (and in English during specific times.) Pop culture oriented Yangon City FM and Mandalay City FM radio stations specialize in Burmese and English pop music, entertainment programs, live celebrity interviews, etc. New radio channels such as Shwe FM and Pyinsawaddy FM can also be tuned with the city area. HP G72-262NR laptop keyboard

Nearly all print media and industries are based out of Yangon. All three national newspapers – two Burmese language dailies Myanma Alin (မြန်မာ့အလင်း) andKyemon (ကြေးမုံ), and the English language The New Light of Myanmar — are published by the government. Semi-governmental The Myanmar Times weekly, HP Mini 110-1134CL laptop keyboard

published in Burmese and in English, is mainly geared for Yangon's expatriate community. Over twenty special interest journals and magazines covering sports, fashion, finance, crime, literature (but never politics) vie for the readership of the general populace. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

Access to foreign media is extremely difficult. Satellite television in Yangon (and in Burma) is highly expensive as the government imposes an annual registration fee of one million kyats.[49] Certain foreign newspapers and periodicals such as the International Herald Tribune and the Straits Times can be found only in a few (mostly downtown) bookstores. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Internet access in Yangon, which has the best telecommunication infrastructure in the country, is slow and erratic at best, and the Burmese government implements one of the world's most restrictive regimes of Internet control.[51] International text messaging and voice messaging was permitted only in August 2008.[52]  DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

Communication

Common facilities taken for granted elsewhere are luxury prized items in Yangon (and Burma). The price of a GSM mobile phone was about K1.1 million in August 2008.[52] In 2007, the country of 55 million had only 775,000 phone lines (including 275,000 mobile phones),[53][54] DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

and 400,000 computers.[53] Even in Yangon, which has the best infrastructure, the estimated telephone penetration rate was only 6% at the end of 2004, and the official waiting time for a telephone line was 3.6 years.[55] Most people cannot afford a computer and have to use the city’s numerous Internet cafes to access a heavily restricted Internet, and a heavily censored local intranet.[51] ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard

 According to official statistics, in July 2010, the country had over 400,000 Internet users, with the vast majority hailing from just two cities, Yangon and Mandalay. Although Internet access was available in 42 cities across the country, the number of users outside the two main cities was just over 10,000.[56] Lenovo 45N2240 Laptop Keyboard

Yangon’s property market is the most expensive in the country and beyond the reach of most Yangonites. Most rent outside downtown and few can afford to rent downtown area apartments. (In 2008, rents for a typical 650-to-750-square-foot (60 to 70 m2) apartments in downtown and vicinity range between K70,000 and K150,000 and those for high end condos between K200,000 and K500,000.)[57]  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Most men of all ages (and some women) spend their time at ubiquitous tea-shops, found in any corner or street of the city. Watching European football (mostly English Premier League with occasional La Liga, FUJITSU Lifebook P1610 Laptop Keyboard

Serie A, Bundesliga) matches while sipping tea is a popular pastime among many Yangonites, rich and poor alike. The average person stays close to his or her neighbourhood haunts. The well-to-do tend to visit shopping malls and parks on weekends. Some leave the city on weekends forChaungtha and Ngwesaung beach resorts in Ayeyarwady Division. TOSHIBA NB100-11G Laptop Keyboard

Yangon is also home to many paya pwes (pagoda festivals), held during dry-season months (November – March). The most famous of all, the Shwedagon Pagoda Festival in March, attracts thousands of pilgrims from around the country. HP 518965-001 Laptop Keyboard

Yangon's museums are the domain of tourists and rarely visited by the locals.

Most of Yangon's larger hotels offer some kind of nightlife entertainment, geared towards tourists and the well-to-do Burmese. Some hotels offer traditional Burmese performing arts shows complete with a traditional Burmese orchestra. The pub scene in larger hotels is more or less the same as elsewhere in Asia. Other options include karaoke bars and pub restaurants in Yangon Chinatown. HP G61-400SP Laptop Keyboard

Due to the problems of high inflation, the lack of high denomination notes, and the fact that many of the population do not have access to checks, or credit or debit cards, it is common to see citizens carrying a considerable amount of cash.[58](The highest denomination of Burmese currency kyat is 5000 (~US$5.)) Credit cards are only rarely used in the city, chiefly in the more lavish hotels. DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Sports

As the city has the best sporting facilities in the country, most national-level annual sporting tournaments such as track and field, football, volleyball, tennis and swimming are held in Yangon. The 40,000-seat Aung San Stadium and the 32,000-seat Thuwunna Stadium are the main venues for the highly popular annual State and Division football tournament. Until April 2009, the now defunct Myanmar Premier League, consisted of 16 Yangon-based clubs,[59] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

played all its matches in Yangon stadiums, and attracted little interest from the general public or commercial success despite the enormous popularity of football in Burma. Most Yangonites prefer watching European football on satellite TV. It remains to be seen whether the Myanmar National League, the country's first professional football league, and its Yangon-based club Yangon United FC will attract a sufficient following in the country's most important media market. HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Yangon is also home to annual the Myanmar Open golf tournament, and the Myanmar Open tennis tournament. The city hosted the 1961 and 1969 South East Asian Games. During colonial times, cricket was played mostly by British officials in the city. First-class cricket was played in the city in January 1927 when the touring Marylebone Cricket Club played Burma and the Rangoon Gymkhana. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Two grounds were used to host these matches, the BAA Ground and the Gymkhana Ground.[60][61] These matches mark the only time Burma and Rangoon Gymkhana have appeared in first-class cricket, and the only time first-class cricket has been played in Burma. After independence cricket all but died out in the country. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Yangon is the country’s main center for trade, industry, real estate, media, entertainment and tourism. The city alone represents about one fifth of the national economy. According to official statistics for FY 2010–2011, the size of the economy of Yangon Region was 8.93 trillion kyats, or 23% of the national GDP.[62]  HP AETT3U00010 Laptop Keyboard

The city is Lower Burma’s main trading hub for all kinds of merchandise – from basic food stuffs to used cars although commerce continues to be hampered by the city's severely underdeveloped banking industry and communication infrastructure.Bayinnaung Market is the largest wholesale centre in the country for rice, beans and pulses, and other agricultural commodities.[63] SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

Much of the country’s legal imports and exports go through Thilawa Port, the largest and busiest port in Burma. There is also a great deal of informal trade, especially in street markets that exist alongside street platforms of Downtown Yangon's townships. However, on 17 June 2011, the YCDC announced that street vendors, ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard

who had previously been allowed to legally open shop at 3 pm, would be prohibited from selling on the streets, and permitted to sell only in their townships of residence, presumably to clean up the city's image.[64] Since 1 December 2009, high-density polyethylene plastic bags have been banned by city authorities.[65] HP Mini 110-1051TU Laptop Keyboard

Manufacturing accounts for a sizable share of employment. At least 14 light industrial zones ring Yangon,[66] directly employing over 150,000 workers in 4,300 factories in early 2010.[67] The city is the centre of country's garment industry which exported US$292 million in 2008/9 fiscal year. More than 80 percent of factory workers in Yangon work on a day-to-day basis.  DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Most are young women between 15 and 27 years of age who come from the countryside in search of a better life.[68] The manufacturing sector suffers from both structural problems (e.g. chronic power shortages) and political problems (e.g. economic sanctions). In 2008, Yangon's 2500 factories alone needed about 120 MW of power;[69] yet, the entire city received only about 250 MW of the 530 MW needed.[70] Chronic power shortages limit the factories' operating hours between 8 am and 6 pm.[71] HP G62x-400 CTO Laptop Keyboard

Construction is a major source of employment. The construction industry has been negatively affected by the move of state apparatus and civil servants to Naypyidaw,[72] new regulations introduced in August 2009 requiring builders to provide at least 12 parking spaces in every new high-rise building, and the general poor business climate. As of January 2010, the number of new high-rise building starts approved in 2009–2010 was only 334, compared to 582 in 2008–2009.[73] ACER Aspire 7520 Laptop Keyboard

Tourism represents a major source of foreign currency for the city although by Southeast Asian standards the actual number of foreign visitors to Yangon has always been quite low—about 250,000 before the Saffron Revolution in September 2007. The number of visitors dipped even further following the Saffron Revolution and Cyclone Nargis.[74] HP Pavilion DV6-1104au Laptop Keyboard

The recent improvement in the country's political climate has attracted an increasing number of businessmen and tourists. Between 300,000 to 400,000 visitors that went through Yangon International in 2011. However, after years of underinvestment, Yangon's modest hotel infrastructure—only 3000 of the total 8000 hotel rooms in Yangon are "suitable for tourists"—is already bursting at seams, and will need to be expanded to handle additional visitors.[75] SONY VAIO VGN-AR200 laptop keyboard

As part of an urban development strategy, a hotel zone has been planned in Yangon's outskirts, encompassing government- and military-owned land in Mingaladon, Hlegu and Htaukkyant Townships.[76] Compaq Presario CQ71-240EB laptop keyboard

Yangon has the best educational facilities and the highest number of qualified teachers in Burma where state spending on education is among the lowest in the world.[77] A 2007 estimate by the London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies puts the spending for education at 0.5 percent of the national budget.[78] HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard

The disparity in educational opportunities and achievement between rich and poor schools is quite stark even within the city. With little or no state support forthcoming, schools have to rely on forced "donations" and various fees from parents for nearly everything – school maintenance to teachers' salaries,[79] forcing many poor students to drop out. ACER TravelMate 2480 laptop keyboard

While many students in poor districts fail to reach high school, a handful of Yangon high schools in wealthier districts likeDagon 1, Sanchaung 2, Bahan 2, Latha 2, and TTC provide the majority of students admitted to the most selective universities in the country, highlighting the extreme shallowness of talent pool in the country.[80] HP Mini 210-1180NR Laptop Keyboard

The wealthy bypass the state education system altogether, sending their children to private English language instruction schools such as YIEC, or abroad (typically Singapore or Australia) for university education.[81] In 2008, international schools in Yangon cost at least US$8,000 a year.[82] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Yangon is home to over 20 universities and colleges. While Yangon University remains the best known (its main campus is a part of popular Burmese culture e.g. literature, music, film, etc.), the nation's oldest university is now mostly a graduate school, deprived of undergraduate studies. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Following the 1988 nationwide uprising, the military government has repeatedly shut down universities, and has dispersed most of undergraduate student population to new universities in the suburbs such as Dagon University, the University of East Yangon and the University of West Yangon. Nonetheless many of the country's most selective universities are still in Yangon. SONY VAIO VGN-NW15G/T Laptop Keyboard

Students from around the country still have to come to study in Yangon as some subjects are offered only at its universities. TheUniversity of Medicine 1, University of Medicine 2, Yangon Technological University, University of Computer Studies and Myanmar Maritime University are the most selective in the country.[83] HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard

The general state of health care in Yangon is poor. According to a 2007 estimate, the military government spends 0.4% of the national budget on health care, and 40% to 60% on defense.[78] By the government's own figures, it spends 849 kyats (US$0.85) per person.[84] HP G71-441NR Laptop Keyboard

 Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals including the flagship Yangon General Hospital lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

Wealthier Yangonites still have access to country's best medical facilities and internationally qualified doctors. Only do Yangon and Mandalay have any sizable number of doctors left as many Burmese doctors have emigrated. The well-to-do go to private clinics or hospitals like Pun Hlaing International Hospital and Bahosi Medical Clinic. Still, medical malpractice is widespread even in private clinics and hospitals that serve the well-to-do. In 2009 and 2010, a spate of high profile deaths[84] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

 brought out the severity of the problem, even for the relatively well off Yangonites. The wealthy do not rely on domestic hospitals and travel abroad (usually Bangkok or Singapore) for treatment.[85] HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

The following is a survey of healthcare facilities in Yangon in 2010–2011.[37]

Construction began in 1895 and was completed 19 November 1899 under a land grant from the Government of India, whilstLower Burma was a province of British India. During the 1930 Rangoon earthquake, St. Mary's Cathedral suffered little damage and it withstood the Japanese invasion during World War II. However, the cathedral's stained glass windows were damaged during the Allied invasion of Rangoon. HP G61-409CA Laptop Keyboard

Purpose: To commemorate the 100th Anniversary of St. Mary's Cathedral in Rangoon, Burma (Myanmar).

For some time before his death (Vicar Apostolic of Burma, 1856–1894) had been giving serious thought to workship for the ever increasing number of his flock in Rangoon. The old cathedral had become too small. That the new structure should take the form of a metropolitan cathedral of considerable size and of the best architectural design was the opinion of both clergy and laity. HP Mini 210-2000 CTO Laptop Keyboard

A suitable piece of land measuring over fifteen acres east of St. Paul's High School was found and the Bishop submitted an application to the Government of Burma, asking permission to sell, as a freehold, the site of the old cathedral, with a view to the proceeds being entirely applied towards the expenditure of erecting the new cathedral. DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

The concession of the land applied for was, in the Chief Commissioner's opinion, excessive, but he was prepared to recommend that the government should sanction the grant of so much of the remaining portion "on either side of St. Paul's school as is at the disposal of the Government: viz, about five subsidiary buildings, provided that the site of the present Cathedral is relinquished to the Government."[attribution needed] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

The Bishop in his reply pointed out that his plea to sell the site of the old cathedral was based on similar concessions made by the government, only a few years previously, to other Christian communities. It was for the government to decide whether the Catholic community should be treated with equal liberality. In any case, the act would be one of grace, and not one which any community could claim as a right. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Two months later, on 23 January 1893, the Bishop was informed that the Government of India sanctioned the proposal to sell the site of the cathedral in Barr Street and to appropriate the proceeds for the erection of a new one. Just prior to the commencement of this project, Bishop Bigandet was called to his Heavenly Home.[clarification needed] SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard

Bishop Paul Bigandet was succeeded by Bishop Alex Cardot (Vicar Apostolic, 1893–1925). A deed of grant was executed and signed by the Secretary to the Commissioner of the Revenue Department and by Bishop Cardot. No time was lost in commencing the foundations of the future edifice. SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

Under the supervision of Mr. H. Hoyne-Fox, consulting architect to the Burmese Government, plans for a Cathedral of the Byzantine model was drawn up. These plans provided for the erection of a fine dome over the junction of the nave, choir and transepts. As the first efforts to sink the foundation resulted in the discovery of a marshy and yielding substratum - it was decided to drive down into the substratum a series of pyinkado piles, HP Probook 4510S Laptop Keyboard

eighteen feet long and three feet in girth as a basis upon which to build. This tedious work was started in June, 1895, and concluded on 1 January 1899. While these important changes were in progress, Bishop Cardot, at the urgent advice of his doctors, was compelled to go to France. Mr Hoyne-Fox was proceeding on long leave, and there was no one to replace him in carrying on the work of supervisor and consulting architect. The Bishop, therefore, was asked to search in Europe for an architect. HP Mini 210-1051VU Laptop Keyboard、

Among the students assembled for Ordination, one was noticeable for his pallid and worn aspect and emaciated figure. Bishop Cardot enquired as to his identity and learned that Rev. Father Janzen (30 September 1858 – 1 Aug. 1911) has been sent home on account of his suffering from tuberculosis two years previously. Toshiba Satellite A105-S271 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Father Janzen had studied in the "Ecole Polytehnique" under Dr. Cuypers, an eminent Dutch architect, who has designed the State Museum at Amsterdam as well as most of the churches built in Holland during the last century. Dr. Cuypers was the originator of a style of architecture since termed "Style Necessaire". Father Janzen had collaborated with Dr. Cuyper's son, himself an architect, in the erection of the Amsterdam Museum. HP G71-441NR laptop keyboard

Bishop Cardot prevailed upon the Superiors of the Society of French Foreign Missions at Paris to allow Father Janzen to accompany him back to Rangoon. Father Janzen went to his native Holland to consult his old classmate, Dr. Cuypers, Jr. who prepared a new plan for a French Catholic Cathedral in the "Syle Necessaire". In November, 1898, Bishop Cardot and Father Janzen arrived at Rangoon.  ACER Aspire One A110-BGb laptop keyboard

To adapt the existing foundation to the new plan, Father Janzen at once set abut to extend the first plan. The altered structure was to be thirty feet longer and capable of seating 1,500 people. Thus, the size of the cathedral was 291 feet (89 m) in length and 101 feet (31 m) in breath. HP G71-441NR laptop keyboard

As a basis, a layer of sand nine feet in depth was substituted for pyinkado piles while an additional hundred of the latter was driven down to strengthen and support the rest. The cornerstone of white marble was solemnly blessed and laid by Bishop Cardot on Sunday, November 19, 1899. ACER Aspire One A110-BGb laptop keyboard

Father Janzen found only bricks and cement, an army of untrained coolies and a few Chinese maistries. The secret of Father Janzen's excellent construction lay in his close and constant supervision and in his indomitable patience and perseverance. Never tired of training and directing his subordinates, he simplified their labor by providing them with wooden rules, frames, TOSHIBA V114302CS1 US laptop keyboard

and other devices to render their operations more mechanical and exact. By the aid of reinforced concrete and wooden moulds, he fabricated tiled and decorative blocks of every description. Many of them he bored through to make them lighter and to save material in such a way, however, DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard

as to interfere in no way with their strength and solidity. Father Janzen sawed through the connection between the towers and the rest of the edifice from top to bottom so as not to damage the main structure. the sinking slowly continued, so much so, that Father Jazen abandoned the idea of adding spires. TOSHIBA Satellite L355-S7835 laptop keyboard

The sinking stopped for more than a year and Father Janzen began the work of constructing the spires, 86 feet above the towers.

On August 11, 1907, Father Janzen slipped on a plank and fractured his thigh in three places. Father Janzen came out of the hospital permanently crippled. Thanks however, to the intelligent supervision of the Chinese maistry, Ah Yen, who for the preceding eight years had been his principal assistant, the work of construction continued. TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s1216 laptop keyboard

The Most Rev. Dr. Kelly, Archbishop of Sydney, had this to say in the Catholic Press of Sydney of the cathedral and Father Janzen:

"The Cathedral at Rangoon, now almost complete in the exterior outline, is a work of genius, it has twin spires rising from its facade, and so setting their surmounting crosses as a to draw the visitor's attention. ACER Aspire One D250-1Bb laptop keyboard

Father Janzen lives hidden away in his single room in the ground floor having but the plainest technical apparatus, restricted to very scant funds, and quite uncertain as to the future. For many months, he has been deprived of the consolation of celebrating Mass, on account of a fractured limb, which no longer serves for standing at the altar. Yet, the Cathedral works and keeps going; COMPAQ Presario CQ41-110AU laptop keyboard

designs are forthcoming as required by each detail of workmanship; expedients for overcoming difficulties and for accommodating disarrangement are invented; and many curses, which have nonplussed professional skill in Burma, have been successfully dealt with by the wonderful spirit that dwells in the dying and broken body of this devoted priest."  Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

The cathedral was dedicated as Our Lady of Immaculate Conception on 22 February 1911. The names of the chief donors were written on it, and it was signed by Rev. Father P. St. Guily.

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A plain inlaid marble slab indicated the spot whereafter "life's fitful fever, he sleeps well". What better spot could have been chosen to lay him to rest than within the walls of that magnificent edifice. And yet by an irony of fate, he lies there forgotten by the hundreds of Catholics who flock almost daily to the Cathedral, HP Mini 210-2090nr Laptop Keyboard

whilst the non-Catholic visitors, mindful that he is in a place of worship and desirous of seeing the architectural beauties of the interior, stands in husted and respectful silence at the foot of the grave and pays his genius at least the passing tribute of a sigh. HP Mini 110-3135dx Laptop Keyboard

A new Cathedral and sad disasters:

The earthquake of May 5, 1930 wrought havoc in the city. The cathedral behaved splendidly under the shock it received. Only two interior vaults came down and others showed a few cracks. Two arches next to the towers were badly cracked but in a few months repairs were completed. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

The cathedral well withstood the Japanese bombings of 1941–42 but the Allied bombing of 14 December 1944 blew all the stained glasses to smithereens. They were redone with the ordinary local made glasses. DELL M711P Laptop Keyboard

On 2 May 2008, again the cathedral glasses were strongly hit and damaged by the Nargis cyclone. This time, tarpaulin sheets were used to fix the broken glass, but that does not match the beauty and dignity of the Cathedral. It would cost a fortune to have them replaced. HP Mini 210-2020sp Laptop Keyboard

According to some historians and archaeologists, however, the pagoda was built by the Mon people between the 6th and 10th centuries CE.

The stupa fell into disrepair until the 14th century, when the Mon king Binnya U of Bago had the stupa rebuilt to a height of 18 m (59 ft). Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

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She terraced the hill on which it stands, paved the top terrace with flagstones, and assigned land and hereditary slaves for its maintenance. She yielded up the throne to Dhammazedi in 1472, retiring to Dagon; during her last illness she had her bed placed so that she could rest her dying eyes upon the gilded dome of the sacred fane. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The Mon face of the Shwe Dagon inscription catalogues a list of repairs beginning in 1436 and finishing during Dhammazedi's reign. It mentions Queen Shinsawbu under a Pali name of sixty-six letters. By the beginning of the 16th century the pagoda had become the most famous place of pilgrimage in Burma.[3] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

A series of earthquakes during the next centuries caused damage. The worst damage came from a 1768 earthquake that brought down the top of the stupa, but afterward King Hsinbyushin (lit. Lord of the White Elephant) of Konbaung Dynasty raised it to its current height of 99 m (325 ft). A new crown umbrella called hti (ထီး) was donated by King Mindon Min in 1871 after the annexation of Lower Burma by the British. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

An earthquake of moderate intensity in October 1970 put the shaft of the hti visibly out of alignment. A scaffold was erected and extensive repairs to the hti were made.

The pagoda is listed on the Yangon City Heritage List.  HP Pavilion dv5-1138tx Laptop Keyboard

From 22 February 2012 to 7 March 2012, devotees celebrated the annual Shwedagon Pagoda Festival (ေရႊတိဂံုဘုရားပြဲ) for the first time since 1988, when it was banned by the governing State Law and Order Restoration Council.[4][5] Celebrations began at the Rahu corner of the pagoda's yinbyin platform, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

at the Maha Pahtan and Aung Myay central platforms (အာင်မြေဗဟိုမဏ္ဍပ်နှင့် မဟာပဋ္ဌာန်းမဏ္ဍပ်), at 9 am. on 22 February.[6] The Shwedagon Pagoda Festival, which is the largest pagoda festival in the country, begins during the new moon of the month of Tabaung in the traditional Burmese calendar and continues until the full moon.[5]  SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

There are four entrances (မုခ္ mouk) to the Paya that lead up a flight of steps to the platform (ရင္ျပင္ yin byin) on Singuttara Hill. The eastern and southern approaches have vendors selling books, good luck charms, Buddha images, candles, gold leaf, incense sticks, prayer flags, streamers, miniature umbrellas and flowers. A pair of giant leogryphs called chinthe(ျခေသၤ့ mythical lions) guard the entrances and the image in the shrine at the top of the steps from the south is that of the second Buddha, TOSHIBA Satellite A135-S2286 laptop keyboard

Konagamana. The base or plinth of the stupa is made of bricks covered with gold plates. Above the base are terraces pyaw bu) and then the crown. The crown or umbrella (ထီး hti) is tipped with 5,448 diamonds and 2,317 rubies. Immediately before the diamond bud is a flag-shaped vane (ငွက္ျမတ္နား nga myat na). The very top, the diamond bud (စိန္ဖူး sein bu) is tipped with a 76 carat (15 g) diamond. ACER Aspire 7738G laptop keyboard

Visitors must remove their shoes before the first step at any of the entrances. The southern and eastern approaches have traditional shops with wide gradual staircases. In addition these entrances have an elevator and the infrequently used western one is equipped with escalators. Burmese walk around the stupa clockwise (let ya yit). The day of the week a person is born will determine their planetary post, eight in all as Wednesday is split in two, a.m. and p.m. HP Mini 210-2090nr laptop keyboard

They are marked by animals that represent the day, galon (garuda) for Sunday (ta nin ganway), tiger for Monday (ta nin la), lion for Tuesday (in ga), tusked elephant for Wednesday a.m.(bouddahu), tuskless elephant for Wednesday p.m. (yahu), mouse for Thursday (kyatha baday), guinea pig for Friday (thaukkya) and naga (mythical dragon/serpent) for Saturday (sanay). Packard Bell Easynote TM98 laptop keyboard

Each planetary post has a Buddha image and devotees offer flowers and prayer flags and pour water on the image with a prayer and a wish. At the base of the post behind the image is a guardian angel, and underneath the image can be seen the animal representing the day. The base of the stupa is octagonal and also surrounded by small shrines, eight in number for each day of the week. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5151 laptop keyboard

Most Myanmar people are Buddhist, at the same time believing astrology which originated from Hindu Brahmanism. It is very important for every Myanmar Buddhist people to recognize the day of their birth, such as Sunday, Monday, Tuesday etc. Otherwise, he or she may not know which part of pagoda platform to go and make special devotional acts either his or her desire or by the advice of Astrologer. SONY VAIO VGN-FS640 laptop keyboard

Myanmar astrology recognizes the[neutrality is disputed] seven planets, namely Sun, Mon, Mars, Jupiter, Mercury, Venus, and Saturn. In addition, it recognizes two other planets, Rahu and Ketu. All the Myanmar names of the planets are borrowed from Hindu astrology, but the Myanmar Rahu and Ketu are different from the Hindu Rahu and Ketu. COMPAQ Presario CQ50-115NR laptop keyboard

The Myanmar considers them to be distinct and separate planets, whereas Hindu astrology considers them to be either the Dragon's Head and Tails, or Ascending and Descending Nodes. To the Myanmar people, Ketu is the king of all planets. As with other Nations the Myanmar name the seven days of their week after the seven planets,  IBM 42T3671 Laptop Keyboard

but Myanmar astrology recognizes an eight days week, Wednesday being divided into two days; until 6 p.m. it is Wednesday, but after 6.pm. to the midnight it is Rahu's day.

The basic belief of Myanmar astrology is that the planets, except Ketu, mould a man's fate. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

For example, at one period of his life he will be under the influence of Saturn and ill-fortune will befall him, but at another period he will be under the influence of Venus and good fortune will result. Thus the ebb and flow of a man's fortune depends on the paths in the sky of the planets. HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

Most Myanmar Buddhist approach an astrologer for something or another, whether to go ahead with a move to a new house or get married or pass exams or doing new business. The astrologer would do some calculations according to the magic formulas he alone knows and arrive at a certain conclusion. DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

The astrologer would sometime say that he or she is under the bad influence of a certain planet and to counter this the clients should go to his or her birthday planetary post and pour a certain number of cups of water or place papier mache umbrellas or flowers etc. as "yadaya" or to put it in English, a symbolic counter to avert the bad influences the subject is under currently or looming in the future by using the inherent powers in his or her offering plus some personal wishes. ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

Or, the symbol of water in conjunction with the symbol of a planetary post will mean that he may send a Wednesday born to pour water at the Saturday corner, and so on. He alone knows the symbols connected to each and he alone can calculate on what day or time to do it, and where. And whoever do not want to avoid misfortune and bad luck just by pouring water at one’s planetary post and ensure one’s peace of mind and end of anxieties. HP G56-129WM Laptop Keyboard

When Myanmar Buddhists go to the pagoda, they know in their hearts that they are treading the noble path to that state where the best of human nature will have a fair chance to manifest itself in deeds of generosity, loving kindness and compassion for one's fellow beings. SONY VGN-FE11H Laptop Keyboard

Visits to pagodas are important to Myanmar Buddhists. The guiding force is faith in the efficacy of one's own karmic deeds. For example, contemplation of the infinite compassion of Buddha, as one makes one's way to Shwedagon's great stupa, is a good karmic deed. HP Mini 210-2012eo Laptop Keyboard

The pilgrim, on his way up the steps of the pagoda, buys flowers, candles, coloured flags and streamers. They are to be offered in honour of the great stupa wherein are enshrined the relics of Buddha. This act is the act of dana, or giving, an important aspect of Buddhist teaching. The donation boxes around the pagoda receive offerings large and small, given to the pagoda for general purposes. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

All donations are voluntary, from the smallest coin put into the box to the priceless jewels hung on the top of the pagoda. No fees are ever requested at pagoda for use of the lifts or for the minding of footwear. The pilgrim can make whatever donation he chooses and may even make none if he wishes. HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

In 1608 the Portuguese adventurer Philip de Brito e Nicote, known as Nga Zinka to the Burmese, plundered the Shwedagon Pagoda. His men took the 300-ton Great Bell of Dhammazedi, donated in 1485 by King Dhammazedi. De Brito's intention was to melt the bell down to make cannons, but it fell into the Bago River when he was carrying it across. To this date, it has not been recovered. HP Pavilion DV7-4053 Laptop Keyboard

Two centuries later, the British landed on May 11, 1824 during the First Anglo-Burmese War. They immediately seized and occupied the Shwedagon Pagoda and used it as a fortress until they left two years later. There was pillaging and vandalism, and one officer's excuse for digging a tunnel into the depths of the stupa was to find out if it could be used as a gunpowder magazine. Compaq Presario CQ57-311 Laptop Keyboard

The Maha Gandha (lit. great sweet sound) Bell, a 23-ton bronze bell cast in 1779 and donated by King Singu and popularly known as the Singu Min Bell, was carried off with the intention to ship it to Calcutta. It met the same fate as the Dhammazedi Bell and fell into the river. When the British failed in their attempts to recover it, the people offered to help provided it could be restored to the stupa. Compaq Presario CQ42-408LA laptop keyboard

The British, thinking it would be in vain, agreed, upon which divers went in to tie hundreds of bamboo poles underneath the bell and floated it to the surface. There has been much confusion over this bell and the 42-ton Maha Tissada (three-toned) Gandha Bell donated in 1841 by King Tharrawaddy along with 20 kg of gold plating; HP Pavilion zd8215 laptop keyboard

this massive ornate bell hangs in its pavilion in the northeast corner of the stupa. A different but less plausible version of the account of the Singu Min Bell was given by Lt. J.E. Alexander in 1827 [1]. This bell can be seen hung in another pavilion in the northwest of the pagoda platform. SONY VAIO VGN-FS970P laptop keyboard

The Second Anglo-Burmese War saw the British re-occupation of the Shwedagon in April 1852, only this time the stupa was to remain under their military control for 77 years, until 1929, although the people were given access to the Paya. SONY VGN-FE865E/H laptop keyboard

During the British occupation and fortification of the Pagoda, Lord Maung Htaw Lay, the most prominent Mon-Burmese in British Burma, successfully prevented the British Army form looting of the treasures; he eventually restored the Pagoda its former glory and status with the financial help from the British rulers. This extract is from the book “A Twentieth Century Burmese Matriarch” written by his great-great-great grand daughter Khin Thida. ACER Aspire 4720G laptop keyboard

 “After retirement he moved back to Rangoon area still in Burmese hands but very soon destined for the next annexation. He was again caught up in war but this time he had a great fortune of supporting religious ventures and gaining tremendous merit. His good karma and leadership abilities led him to the task of saving the great Shwedagon Pagoda from imminent destruction and sacking of its treasures by British troops in the second Anglo-Burmese War. SAMSUNG R20 laptop keyboard

The great Buddhist shrine had been fortified by the British troops in the 1824 war and was again used as a fort in 1852. When he heard of the fortification and sacking of the shrine, he sent a letter of appeal directly to the British India Office in London stopping the desecration. He then obtained compensation from the British Commissioner of Burma Mr. Phayre and began the renovations of the Pagoda in 1855 with public support and donations. TOSHIBA V-0522BIAS1-US laptop keyboard

He became the founding trustee of the Shwedagon Pagoda Trust and he was awarded the title of KSM by the British Raj for his public service. He died at the age of 95, bequeathing his prestige and high repute to his large family and descendants.” SONY VAIO VGN-FS830 laptop keyboard

In 1920, students from Burma's only university met at a pavilion on the southwest corner of the Shwedagon pagoda and planned a protest strike against the new University Act which they believed would only benefit the elite and perpetuate colonial rule. This place is now commemorated by a memorial. ACER Aspire 3003LMi laptop keyboard

The result of the ensuing University Boycott was the establishment of "national schools" financed and run by the Burmese people; this day has been commemorated as the BurmeseNational Day since. During the second university students strike in history of 1936, the terraces of the Shwedagon were again where the student strikers camped out.  HP Mini 210-1110EZ laptop keyboard

 In 1938, oilfield workers on strike hiked all the way from the oilfields of Chauk and Yenangyaung in central Burma to Rangoon to establish a strike camp at the Shwedagon Pagoda. This strike, supported by the public as well as students and came to be known as the '1300 Revolution' after the Burmese calendar year, was broken up by the police who, in their boots whereas Burmese would remove their shoes in pagoda precincts, raided the strike camps on the pagoda. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

The "shoe question" on the pagoda has always been a sensitive issue to the Burmese people since colonial times. The Burmese people had always removed shoes at all Buddhist pagodas. Hiram Cox, the British envoy to the Burmese Court, in 1796, observed the tradition by not visiting the pagoda rather than take off his shoes. TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5153 laptop keyboard

However, after the annexation of lower Burma, European visitors as well as troops posted at the pagoda openly flouted the tradition. U Dhammalokapublicly confronted a police officer over wearing shoes at the pagoda in 1902. It was not until 1919 that the British authorities finally issued a regulation prohibiting footwear in the precincts of the pagoda.  COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

However, they put in an exception that employees of the government on official business were allowed footwear. The regulation and its exception clause moved to stir up the people and played a role in the beginnings of the nationalist movement. Today, no footwear or socks are allowed on the pagoda. DELL NSK-D5A01 Laptop Keyboard

In January 1946, General Aung San addressed a mass meeting at the stupa, demanding "independence now" from the British with a thinly veiled threat of a general strike and uprising. Forty-two years later, on August 26, 1988, his daughter, Aung San Suu Kyi addressed another mass meeting of 500,000 people at the stupa, demanding democracy from the military regime and calling the 8888 Uprising the second struggle for independence. HP G71-343US Laptop Keyboard

In September 2007, during nationwide demonstrations against the military regime and its recently enacted price increases, protesting monks were denied access to the pagoda for several days before the government finally relented and permitted them in. COMPAQ 367777-001 Laptop Keyboard

On September 24, 2007, 20,000 monks and nuns (the largest protest in 20 years) marched at the golden Shwedagon Pagoda,Yangon. On Monday, 30,000 people led by 15,000 monks marched from Shwedagon Pagoda and past the offices of Aung San Suu Kyi's opposition National League for Democracy (NLD) party. Comedian Zarganar and star Kyaw Thu brought food and water to the monks. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

On Saturday, monks marched to greet Aung San Suu Kyi, who is under house arrest. On Sunday, about 150 nuns joined the marchers.[7][8] On September 25, 2007, 2,000 monks and supporters defied threats from Burma's junta. They marched to Yangon streets at Shwedagon Pagoda amid army trucks and the warning of Brigadier-General Thura Myint Maung not to violate Buddhist "rules and regulations."[9] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

On September 26, 2007, clashes between security forces and thousands of protesters led by Buddhist monks in Burma have left at least five protesters dead by Burma security forces, according to opposition reports,[citation needed] in an anticipated crackdown. Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

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The web site reports that protesting "monks were beaten and bundled into waiting army trucks," adding about 50 monks were arrested and taken to undisclosed locations. In addition, the opposition said "soldiers with assault rifles have sealed off sacred Buddhist monasteries ... as well as other flashpoints of anti-government protests." TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

It reports that the violent crackdown came as about 100 monks defied a ban by venturing into a cordoned-off area around the Shwedagon Pagoda, Burma's holiest Buddhist shrine.

It says that authorities ordered the crowd to disperse, but witnesses said the monks sat down and began praying, defying the military government's ban on public assembly. Security forces at the pagoda "struck out at demonstrators" and attacked HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

several hundred other monks and supporters," the opposition web site detailed. Monks were ushered away by authorities and loaded into waiting trucks while several hundred onlookers watched, witnesses said.[citation needed] Some managed to escape and headed towards the Sule Pagoda, a Buddhist monument and landmark located in Yangon's city centre. SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard

ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam

Vietnam (i/ˌviːətˈnɑːm/, /viˌɛt-/, /-ˈnæm/, /ˌvjɛt-/;[7] Vietnamese pronunciation: [viət˨ naːm˧] ( listen)) officially theSocialist Republic of Vietnam (Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam ( listen)), is the easternmost country on theIndochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 90.3 million inhabitants as of 2012, it is the world's 13th-most-populous country,HP 590527-001 Laptop Keyboard

and the eighth-most-populous Asian country. The name Vietnam translates as "South Viet", and was officially adopted in 1945. The country is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the east.[8] Its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of Northand South Vietnam in 1976. HP Mini 210-1073TU Laptop Keyboard

The Vietnamese became independent from Imperial China in 938 AD, following the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. SuccessiveVietnamese royal dynasties flourished as the nation expanded geographically and politically into Southeast Asia, until the Indochina Peninsula was colonized by the French in the mid-19th century. DELL NSK-D5A01 Laptop Keyboard

The First Indochina War eventually led to the expulsion of the French in 1954, leaving Vietnam divided politically into two states, North and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified, with heavy foreign intervention, during the Vietnam War, which ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. ASUS X53 Laptop Keyboard

HP 535689-001 Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam was then unified under a Communist government, but was politically isolated and impoverished. In 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms, which began Vietnam's path towards integration into the world economy.[9] By 2000, it had established diplomatic relations with most nations. Vietnam's economic growth has been among the highest in the world since 2000,[9]  DELL Latitude D820 Laptop Keyboard

and in 2011 it had the highest Global Growth Generators Indexamong 11 major economies.[10] Its successful economic reforms resulted in it joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. However, the country still suffers from relatively high levels of income inequality, disparities in healthcareprovision, and poor gender equality.[11][12][13][14][15] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7332 Laptop Keyboard

The name Việt Nam (Vietnamese pronunciation: [viə̀t naːm]) is a variation of "Nam Việt" (Chinese: 南越; pinyin: Nányuè; literally "Southern Việt"), a name that can be traced back to the Trieu dynasty of the 2nd century BC.[16] The wordViệt originated as a shortened form of Bách Việt (Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè), TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5097 Laptop Keyboard

a word applied to a group of peoples then living in southern China and Vietnam.[17] The form "Vietnam" (越南) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình.[18] The name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that was carved in 1558.[19] DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long.[20] It was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Boi Chau's History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party.[21] The country was usually called Annam until 1945, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

when both the imperial government in Hue and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam.[22] Since the use of Chinese characters was discontinued in 1918, the alphabetic spelling of Vietnam is official. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithicage. Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lang Son and Nghe An provinces in northern Vietnam.[23] The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistoceneprovenance, and include isolated teeth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.[24] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can,[25] and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu,[25] Lang Gao[26]and Lang Cuom.[27] HP K031202I1 Laptop Keyboard

By about 1000 BC, the development of wet-rice cultivation and bronze casting in the Ma River and Red River floodplains led to the flourishing of the Đông Sơn culture, notable for its elaborate bronze drums. At this time, the early Vietnamese kingdoms of Văn Lang and Âu Lạc appeared, and the culture's influence spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, throughout the first millennium BC.[28][29][30] SONY VAIO VGN-NR21E/S Laptop Keyboard

The legendary Hồng Bàng Dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, known in Vietnamese as Văn Lang.HP Mini 210-2145dx Laptop Keyboard

In 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương. In 207 BC, a Chinese general named Zhao Tuo defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into Nanyue. However, Nanyue was itself incorporated into the empire of the Chinese Han Dynasty in 111 BC. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

For the next thousand years, Vietnam remained mostly under Chinese rule.[31] Early independence movements, such as those of the Trưng Sisters and Lady Triệu, were only temporarily successful, but the region did become independent as Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Lý Dynasty between 544 and 602 AD. By the early 10th century, Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not independence, under the Khúc family. ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard

In 938 AD, the Vietnamese lord Ngô Quyền defeated the Chinese forces of the Southern Han state at Bạch Đằng River and regained independence after a millennium of Chinese domination.[32] Renamed as Đại Việt (Great Viet), the nation enjoyed a golden era under the Lý and Trần Dynasties. During the rule of the Trần Dynasty, Đại Việt repelled three Mongol invasions.[33]Meanwhile, Buddhism flourished and became the state religion. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard

Following the brief rule of the Hồ Dynasty, Vietnamese independence was briefly interrupted by the Chinese Ming Dynasty, but was restored by Lê Lợi, the founder of the Lê Dynasty. The Vietnamese dynasties reached their zenith in the Lê Dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497).  LENOVO IdeaPad S10e 4068 laptop keyboard

Between the 11th and 18th centuries, Vietnam expanded southward in a process known as nam tiến ("southward expansion"),[34]eventually conquering the kingdom of Champa and part of the Khmer Empire.[35][36] HP Pavilion tx2520ea laptop keyboard

From the 16th century onwards, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Vietnam. First, the Chinese-supported Mạc Dynasty challenged the Lê Dynasty's power. After the Mạc Dynasty was defeated, ACER Aspire AS5735-6211 laptop keyboard

the Lê Dynasty was nominally reinstalled, but actual power was divided between the northern Trịnh Lords and the southern Nguyễn Lords, who engaged in acivil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s. During this time, the Nguyễn expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the central highlands of Tay Nguyen and the Khmer lands in the Mekong Delta. FUJITSU Lifebook S7111 laptop keyboard

The division of the country ended a century later when the Tây Sơn brothers established a new dynasty. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn Lords, led by Nguyễn Ánh and aided by the French.[37]Nguyễn Ánh unified Vietnam, and established the Nguyễn Dynasty, ruling under the name Gia Long. HP Pavilion DV7-3188cl laptop keyboard

Vietnam's independence was gradually eroded by France – aided by large Catholic collaborator militias – in a series of military conquests between 1859 and 1885. In 1887, the entire country formally became part of French Indochina. The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society. IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard

A Western-style system of modern education was developed, and Roman Catholicism was propagated widely in Vietnamese society. Most of the French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina – the southern third of Vietnam – based around the city ofSaigon.[38] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ740N laptop keyboard

Developing a plantation economy to promote the export of tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee, the French largely ignored increasing calls for Vietnamese self-government and civil rights. A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders such as Phan Boi Chau, Phan Chu Trinh, SONY VAIO VGN-SZ240P laptop keyboard

Phan Dinh Phung, Emperor Hàm Nghi and Ho Chi Minh fighting or calling for independence. However, the royalist Can Vuong was defeated in the 1890s after a decade of resistance, and the 1930 Yen Bai mutiny of the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang was put down easily. The French maintained control of their colonies until World War II, when the war in the Pacific led to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in 1941. TOSHIBA Satellite A135-S2256 laptop keyboard

With the defeat of France in Europe in 1940, the French Third Republic was replaced by the Vichy Regime, to which the colony remained loyal. Heavily dependent on Nazi Germany, Vichy France was forced to surrender control of French Indochina to Germany's ally, Japan. DELL Studio 1749 laptop keyboard

The natural resources of Vietnam were exploited for the purposes of the Japanese Empire's military campaigns into the British Indochinese colonies of Burma, the Malay Peninsula and India. The Japanese occupation was a key cause of the Vietnamese Famine of 1945, which caused between 400,000 and two million deaths,[39] equivalent to as much as 10% of the contemporary population.[40] HP K031202I1 laptop keyboard

1945–1954: First Indochina War

Main articles: First Indochina War, Democratic Republic of Vietnam, State of Vietnam, State of Vietnam referendum, 1955, and Operation Passage to Freedom

In 1941, the Viet Minh – a communist and nationalist liberation movement – emerged under the Marxist-Leninist revolutionaryHo Chi Minh, HP G71-343US laptop keyboard

who sought independence for Vietnam from France and the end of the Japanese occupation. Following the military defeat of Japan and the fall of its puppet Empire of Vietnam in August 1945, the Viet Minh occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government, which asserted national independence on 2 September.[41] HP 496878-001 laptop keyboard

In the same year, the Provisional French Republic sent the French Far East Expeditionary Corps – originally created to fight the Japanese occupation forces – to pacify the Vietnamese liberation movement and to restore French colonial rule. On 23 November 1946, French vessels bombarded the port city of Hai Phong, and the Viet Minh's guerrilla campaign against French forces began soon after. The resulting First Indochina War lasted until 20 July 1954. HP Mini 210-2140la laptop keyboard

Despite taking fewer losses during the course of the war – the Expeditionary Corps suffered one-third of the casualties of the Chinese and Soviet-backed Viet Minh – the French and Vietnamese loyalists eventually suffered a major strategic setback at during their defeat at the Siege of Dien Bien Phu, which allowed Ho Chi Minh to negotiate a ceasefire from a favorable position at the Geneva Conference of 1954.  HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard

The colonial administration ended and French Indochina was dissolved under the Geneva Accords of 1954, which separated the forces of former French supporters and communist nationalists at the 17th parallel north with the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone.[N 2] A 300-day period of free movement was given, during which almost a million northerners, mainly Catholic, moved south, fearing persecution by the communists. DELL Latitude D531 Laptop Keyboard

The partition of Vietnam, with Ho Chi Minh's Democratic Republic of Vietnam in North Vietnam, and Emperor Bảo Đại's State of Vietnam in South Vietnam, was not intended to be permanent by the Geneva Accords, and the Accords expressly forbade the interference of third powers. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

However, in 1955, the State of Vietnam's Prime Minister, Ngo Dinh Diem, toppled Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum organised by his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, and proclaimed himself president of the Republic of Vietnam. ACER Aspire 5710 Laptop Keyboard

The pro-Hanoi Vietcong began a guerrilla campaign in the late 1950s to overthrow Diem's government, which an official Vietcong statement described as a "disguised colonial regime."[45] In the North, the communist government launched a land reform program, which, according to Steven Rosefielde, SONY VAIO VGN-NR21Z/S Laptop Keyboard

was "aimed at exterminating class enemies."[46] It is estimated that between 50,000[47] and 172,000[46] people perished in the campaigns against wealthy farmers and landowners. Rosefielde discusses much higher estimates, ranging from 200,000 to 900,000, which include summary executions of National People's Party members.[46][48] ACER Aspire 7741ZG Laptop Keyboard

In 1960, the Soviet Union and North Vietnam signed a treaty opening the way for further Soviet military support, cementing this with a further treaty in 1962. In the South, Diem went about crushing political and religious opposition, imprisoning, torturing or killing tens of thousands.[49][50] HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard

In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diem's pro-Catholic regime erupted into mass demonstrations following the banning of the Buddhist flag and the Hue Vesak shootings. With Diem unwilling to compromise, Nhu orchestrated the Xa Loi Pagoda raids; estimates of the death toll range into the hundreds. As a result, America's relationship with Diem broke down, resulting in the 1963 coup that saw Diem and Nhu assassinated. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Diem era was followed by a series of corrupt military regimes that often lasted only months before being toppled by other military officers. With South Vietnam paralyzed by instability, the communists began to gain ground.  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

There were more than a dozen South Vietnamese governments between 1961 and 1965, before the pairing of Air Marshal Nguyen Cao Ky and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took control in mid-1965. Thieu gradually outmaneuvered Ky and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971.[51] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

To support South Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States began increasing its contribution of military advisers, using the controversial 1964 Tonkin Gulf incident as a pretext for such intervention. US forces became embroiled in ground combat operations in 1965, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

and at their peak they numbered more than 500,000.[52][53] The US also engaged in a sustained aerial bombing campaign. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union furnished North Vietnam with a huge volume of military aid, including aircraft, radar, artillery, air defense systems, small arms, ammunition, food and medical supplies, along with 15,000 combat advisers.[54]  HP Mini 110-1032NR Laptop Keyboard

Communist forces attacked major targets in South Vietnam en masse during the 1968 Tet Offensive, and although their campaign failed militarily, it shocked the American establishment, and turned US public opinion against the war.[55] In the former capital city of Huế, communist troops captured the Imperial Citadel and much of the city, which led to the Battle of Huế. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

During the interim between the capture of the Citadel and end of the Battle of Huế, the communist forces massacred over 3,000 unarmed civilians. Communist forces supplying the Vietcong carried supplies along the Ho Chi Minh trail, which passed through Laos and Cambodia.  IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Its own casualties mounting, and facing opposition to the war at home and condemnation abroad, the US began withdrawing from ground combat roles according to the Nixon Doctrine; the process was subsequently called Vietnamization. The effort had mixed results, ultimately failing to stabilize South Vietnam. HP Pavilion DV6-6B00 Laptop Keyboard

The Paris Peace Accords of 27 January 1973 formally recognized the sovereignty of Vietnam "as recognized by the 1954 Geneva Agreements." Under the terms of the accords, all American combat troops were withdrawn by 29 March 1973. Limited fighting continued, before North Vietnam captured the province of Phuoc Long in December 1974 and started a full-scale offensive, HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard

culminating in the Fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. South Vietnam briefly came under the nominal rule of a Provisional Revolutionary Government while under military occupation by North Vietnam. On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.[1] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The war left Vietnam devastated, with the total death toll standing at between 800,000 and 3.1 million, and many thousands more crippled by the use of chemical weapons such as Agent Orange.[39][56][57] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

In the aftermath of the war, under Lê Duẩn's administration, the government embarked on a mass campaign of collectivization of farms and factories. This caused an economic collapse and resulted in triple-digit inflation. Reconstruction of the war-ravaged country was slow, and serious humanitarian and economic problems confronted thecommunist regime. At least one million South Vietnamese were sent to reeducation camps, HP Pavilion dv6-2132se Laptop Keyboard

with an estimated 165,000 prisoners dying.[58][59] Between 100,000[58][60][61] and 200,000[62] South Vietnamese were executed.[63] R.J. Rummel, an analyst of political killings, estimated that about 50,000 South Vietnamese deported to "New Economic Zones" died performing hard labor,[64] SONY VAIO VGN-CS115J/R laptop keyboard

out of the 1 million that were sent.[58] In the late 1970s and early 1980s, millions of peoplefled the country in crudely built boats, creating an international humanitarian crisis.[65][66] Between 200,000 and 400,000 boat people died at sea.[67]TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5165 laptop keyboard

In 1978, the Vietnamese military invaded Cambodia to remove from power the Khmer Rouge, who had been razing Vietnamese border villages and massacring the inhabitants.[68] Vietnam was victorious, installing a regime in Cambodia whose leaders ruled until 1989.[69] This action worsened relations with the Chinese, who launched a brief incursion into northern Vietnam in 1979.[70] This conflict caused Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid. HP Pavilion DV7-3110tx laptop keyboard

At the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam in December 1986, reformist politicians upset by the country's lack of economic progress replaced the "old guard" government with new leadership.[71][72] The reformers were led by 71-year-old Nguyen Van Linh, who became the party's new general secretary.[72] HP Pavilion ze4600 laptop keyboard

Linh was a native of northern Vietnam who had served in the south both during and after the Vietnam War.[71][72] In a historic shift, Linh and the reformers implemented a series of free-market reforms – known as Đổi Mới (Renovation) – which carefully managed the transition from a planned economy to a "socialist-oriented market economy".[73][74] SONY VAIO VGN-FS215S laptop keyboard

Though the authority of the state remained unchallenged, the government encouraged private ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries.[74] The Vietnamese economy subsequently achieved rapid growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports and foreign investment. However, these reforms have also caused a rise in income inequality and gender disparities. SONY VAIO PCG-F150 laptop keyboard

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam, along with China, Cuba, and Laos, is one of the world's four remaining single-partysocialist states espousing communism. Its current state constitution, which replaced the 1975 constitution in April 1992, asserts the central role of the Communist Party of Vietnam in all organs of government, politics and society. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ19VN laptop keyboard

TheGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party performs numerous key administrative and executive functions, controlling the party's national organization and state appointments, as well as setting policy. Only political organizations affiliated with or endorsed by the Communist Party are permitted to contest elections in Vietnam. HP G61-110SA laptop keyboard

These include the Vietnamese Fatherland Front and worker and trade unionist parties. Although the state remains officially committed to socialism as its defining creed, its economic policies have grown increasingly capitalist,[75] with The Economist characterizing its leadership as "ardently capitalist communists".[76] HP SG-46100-XUA laptop keyboard

The President of Vietnam is the titular head of state and the nominal commander-in-chief of the military, serving as the Chairman of the Council of Supreme Defense and Security. The Prime Minister of Vietnam is the head of government, presiding over a council of ministers composed of three deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

The National Assembly of Vietnam is the unicameral legislature of the state, composed of 498 members. Headed by aChairman, it is superior to both the executive and judicial branches, with all government ministers being appointed from members of the National Assembly. Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

The Supreme People's Court of Vietnam, headed by a Chief Justice, is the country's highest court of appeal, though it is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand the provincial municipal courts and numerous local courts. Military courts possess special jurisdiction in matters of national security. HP Pavilion DV7-2043cl laptop keyboard

The Vietnam People's Armed Forces consists of the Vietnam People's Army, the Vietnam People's Public Security and theVietnam Civil Defense Force. The Vietnam People's Army (VPA) is the official name for the active military services of Vietnam, and is subdivided into the Vietnam People's Ground Forces, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

the Vietnam People's Navy, the Vietnam People's Air Force, the Vietnam Border Defense Force and the Vietnam Marine Police. The VPA has an active manpower of around 450,000, but its total strength, including paramilitary forces, may be as high as 5,000,000.[77] In 2011, Vietnam'sSONY 148701522 laptop keyboard

Throughout its history, Vietnam's key foreign relationship has been with its largest neighbour and one-time imperial master, China. Vietnam's sovereign principles and insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over the centuries, SONY VAIO VGN-CR507E laptop keyboard

such as the 11th-century patriotic poem Nam quốc sơn hà and the 1428 proclamation of independence Bình Ngô đại cáo. Though China and Vietnam are now formally at peace, significant territorial tensions remain between the two countries.[79] HP Pavilion G60-213EM laptop keyboard

Currently, the formal mission statement of Vietnamese foreign policy is to: "Implement consistently the foreign policy line of independence, self-reliance, peace, cooperation and development; the foreign policy of openness and diversification and multi-lateralization of international relations. Proactively and actively engage in international economic integration while expanding international cooperation in other fields."[80] HP Pavilion dv6-2132se laptop keyboard

Vietnam furthermore declares itself to be "a friend and reliable partner of all countries in the international community, actively taking part in international and regional cooperation processes."[80] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

By December 2007, Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 172 countries, including the United States, which normalized relations in 1995.[81][82] Vietnam holds membership of 63 international organizations, including the United Nations, ASEAN, NAM, Francophonie and WTO. It is furthermore a member of around 650 non-government organizations.[83]TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard

Administrative subdivisions

Main articles: Provinces of Vietnam, Municipalities of Vietnam, and Districts of Vietnam

Vietnam is divided into 58 provinces (Vietnamese: tỉnh, from the Chinese 省, shěng). There are also five municipalities (thành phốtrực thuộc trung ương), which are administratively on the same level as provinces. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam is located on the eastern Indochina Peninsula between the latitudes 8° and 24°N, and the longitudes 102° and110°E. It covers a total area of approximately 331,210 km2 (127,881 sq mi),[2] making it almost the size of Germany. The combined length of the country's land boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883 mi), Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

and its coastline is 3,444 km (2,140 mi) long.[2]Vietnam's land is mostly hilly and densely forested, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the country's land area, and tropical forests cover around 42%.TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard

The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the Red River Delta. Phan Xi Păng, located in Lào Cai province, is the highest mountain in Vietnam, standing 3,143 m (10,312 ft) high. Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, the mountains of the Annamite Range, and extensive forests. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its total forested land. The soil in much of southern Vietnam is relatively poor in nutrients. SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard

The Red River Delta, a flat, roughly triangular region covering 15,000 km2 (5,792 sq mi),[84] is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta. Once an inlet of the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in over the millennia by riverine alluvial deposits. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

The delta, covering about 40,000 km2 (15,444 sq mi), is a low-level plain no more than 3 meters (9.8 ft) above sea level at any point. It is criss-crossed by a maze of rivers and canals, which carry so much sediment that the delta advances 60 to 80 meters (196.9 to 262.5 ft) into the sea every year. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

Because of differences in latitude and the marked variety in topographical relief, the climate tends to vary considerably from place to place. During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture. Consequently,  HP Mini 210-1070NR Laptop Keyboard

the winter season in most parts of the country is dry only by comparison with the rainy or summer season. The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains, and higher in the south than in the north. TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard

Temperatures vary less in the southern plains around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta, ranging between 21 and 28 °C (69.8 and 82.4 °F) over the course of the year. Seasonal variations in the mountains and plateaus and in the north are much more dramatic, with temperatures varying from 5 °C (41.0 °F) in December and January to 37 °C (98.6 °F) in July and August. HP Mini 311-1009TU Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam has two World Natural Heritage Sites – Ha Long Bay and Phong Nha-Ke Bang National Park – and six biosphere reserves, including Can Gio Mangrove Forest, Cat Tien, Cat Ba, Kien Giang, the Red River Delta, and Western Nghe An. SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam lies in the Indomalaya ecozone. According to the 2005 National Environmental Present Condition Report.[85] Vietnam is one of twenty-five countries considered to possess a uniquely high level of biodiversity. It is ranked 16th worldwide in biological diversity, being home to approximately 16% of the world's species. 15,986 species of flora have been identified in the country, SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

of which 10% are endemic, while Vietnam's fauna include 307 nematode species, 200 oligochaeta, 145 acarina, 113springtails, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, 120 amphibians, 840 birds and 310 mammals, of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are endemic.[85]HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam is furthermore home to 1,438 species of freshwater microalgae, constituting 9.6% of all microalgae species, as well as 794 aquatic invertebrates and 2,458 species of sea fish.[85] In recent years, 13 genera, 222 species, and 30 taxa of flora have been newly described in Vietnam.[85] ASUS U3S Laptop Keyboard

Six new mammal species, including the saola, giant muntjac and Tonkin snub-nosed monkey have also been discovered, along with one new bird species, the endangered Edwards's Pheasant.[86] In the late 1980s, a small population of Javan Rhinoceros was found in Cát Tiên National Park. However, the last individual of the species in Vietnam was reportedly shot in 2010.[87] HP V061130AS1 Laptop Keyboard

In agricultural genetic diversity, Vietnam is one of the world's twelve original cultivar centers. The Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank preserves 12,300 cultivars of 115 species.[85] The Vietnamese government spent US$49.07 million on the preservation of biodiversity in 2004 alone, and has established 126 conservation areas, including 28 national parks.[85] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

In 2012, Vietnam's nominal GDP reached US$137.681 billion, with a nominal GDP per capita of $1,523, according to theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF).[3] According to a December 2005 forecast by Goldman Sachs, the Vietnamese economy will become the world's 17th-largest by 2025, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

with an estimated nominal GDP of $436 billion and a nominal GDP per capita of $4,357.[88] According to a 2008 forecast by PricewaterhouseCoopers, Vietnam may be the fastest-growing of the world's emerging economies by 2025, with a potential growth rate of almost 10% per annum in real dollar terms.[89] In 2012, HSBCpredicted that Vietnam's total GDP would surpass those of Norway, Singapore and Portugal by 2050.[90] TOSHIBA Satellite P500 Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam has been, for much of its history, a predominantly agricultural civilization based on wet rice cultivation. However, the Vietnam War destroyed much of the country's agrarian economy, leading the post-war government to implement a planned economy to revitalise agriculture and industrialise the nation. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

The collectivization of farms, factories and economic capital was implemented, and millions of people were put to work in government programs. For a decade following the Vietnam War, Vietnam's economy was plagued with inefficiency and corruption in state programs, poor quality and underproduction, HP Pavilion G60-442OM Laptop Keyboard

and restrictions on economic activity. It also suffered from the post-war trade embargo instituted by the United States and most of Europe. These problems were compounded by the erosion of the Soviet bloc, which included Vietnam's main trading partners, in the late 1980s. DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

In 1986, the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party introduced socialist-oriented market economic reforms as part of the Đổi Mới reform program. Private ownership was encouraged in industries, commerce and agriculture.[91] Thanks largely to these reforms, Vietnam achieved around 8% annual GDP growth between 1990 to 1997, and the economy continued to grow at an annual rate of around 7% from 2000 to 2005, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

making Vietnam one of the world's fastest growing economies. Growth remained strong even in the face of the late-2000s global recession, holding at 6.8% in 2010, but Vietnam's year-on-year inflation rate hit 11.8% in December 2010, according to a GSO estimate. The Vietnamese dong was devalued three times in 2010 alone.[92] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

Manufacturing, information technology and high-tech industries now form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Though Vietnam is a relative newcomer to the oil industry, it is currently the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia, with a total 2011 output of 318,000 barrels per day (50,600 m3/d).[93] Like its Chinese neighbours, Vietnam continues to make use of centrally planned economic five-year plans. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 Laptop Keyboard

Deep poverty, defined as the percentage of the population living on less than $1 per day, has declined significantly in Vietnam, and the relative poverty rate is now less than that of China, India, and the Philippines.[94] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

This decline in the poverty rate can be attributed toequitable economic policies aimed at improving living standards and preventing the rise of inequality; these policies have included egalitarian land distribution during the initial stages of Đổi Mới, investment in poorer remote areas, and subsidising of education and healthcare.[95] According to the IMF, the unemployment rate in Vietnam stood at 4.46% in 2012.[3] TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5165RM Laptop Keyboard

TradeSince the early 2000s, Vietnam has applied sequenced trade liberalisation, a two-track approach opening some sectors of the economy to international markets while protecting others.[95][96] In July 2006, Vietnam updated its intellectual property legislation to comply with TRIPS, and it became a member of the WTO on 11 January 2007. Vietnam is now one of Asia's most open economies: DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard

two-way trade was valued at around 160% of GDP in 2006, more than twice the contemporary ratio for China and over four times the ratio for India.[97] Vietnam's chief trading partners include China, Japan, Australia, the ASEAN countries, the United States and Western Europe. In 2011, Vietnam's total international trade, including both exports and imports, was valued at approximately $200 billion.[98] HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

As a result of several land reform measures, Vietnam has become a major exporter of agricultural products. It is now the world's largest producer of cashewnuts, with a one-third global share; the largest producer of black pepper, accounting for one-third of the world's market; and the second-largest rice exporter in the world, SONY Vaio PCG-K215S Laptop Keyboard

after Thailand. Vietnam has the highest proportion of land use for permanent crops – 6.93% – of any nation in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Other primary exports include coffee, tea, rubber, and fishery products. However, agriculture's share of Vietnam's GDP has fallen in recent decades, declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006, as production in other sectors of the economy has risen. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Science and technology

Vietnamese scholars developed many academic fields during the dynastic era, most notably social sciences and the humanities. The country boasts a millennium-deep legacy of analytical histories, such as the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư of Ngô Sĩ Liên. Vietnamese monks led by the abdicated Emperor Tran Nhan Tong developed the Trúc Lâm Zen branch of philosophy in the 13th century. HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard

Arithmetics and geometry have been widely taught in Vietnam since the 15th century, using the textbook Đại thành toán pháp by Lương Thế Vinh as a basis. Lương Thế Vinh introduced Vietnam to the notion of zero, while Mạc Hiển Tích used the term số ẩn (en: "unknown/secret/hidden number") to refer to negative numbers. Vietnamese scholars furthermore produced numerous encyclopedias, such as Lê Quý Đôn's Vân đài loại ngữ. FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 Laptop Keyboard

In recent times, Vietnamese scientists have made many significant contributions in various fields of study, most notably in mathematics. Hoàng Tụy pioneered theapplied mathematics field of global optimization in the 20th century, while Ngô Bảo Châu won the 2010 Fields Medal for his proof of fundamental lemma in the theory of automorphic forms. SONY VAIO VGN-FS315H Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam is currently working to develop an indigenous space program, and plans to construct the US$600 million Vietnam Space Center by 2018.[99] Vietnam has also made significant advances in the development of robots, such as the TOPIO humanoid model.[100] In 2010, Vietnam's total state spending on science and technology equalled around 0.45% of its GDP.[101] SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam operates 17 major civil airports, including three international gateways: Noi Bai in Hanoi, Da Nang International Airport in Da Nang, and Tan Son Nhat in Ho Chi Minh City. Tan Son Nhat is the nation's largest airport, handling 75 percent of international passenger traffic. According to a state-approved plan, ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam will have 10 international airports by 2015 – besides the aforementioned three, these include Lien Khuong International Airport, Phu Bai International Airport, Cam Ranh International Airport, HP Pavilion dv6-2112ez laptop keyboard

Phu Quoc International Airport, Cat Bi International Airport,Cần Thơ International Airport and Long Thanh International Airport. The planned Long Thanh International Airport will be built on an area of 50 square kilometres (19 sq mi), and will have an annual service capacity of 100 million passengers. TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5162 laptop keyboard

Vietnam Airlines, the state-owned national airline, maintains a fleet of 69 passenger aircraft,[102][103] and aims to operate 150 by 2020. Several private airlines are also in operation in Vietnam, including Air Mekong, Jetstar Pacific Airlines, VASCO and VietJet Air. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard

Vietnam's road system includes national roads administered at the central level; provincial roads managed at the provincial level; district roads managed at the district level; urban roads managed by cities and towns; SONY VAIO VGN-CS13G/Q laptop keyboard

and commune roads managed at the commune level. Bicycles, motor scooters and motorcycles remain the most popular forms of road transport in Vietnam's urban areas, although the number of privately owned automobiles is also on the rise, especially in the larger cities. Public buses operated by private companies are the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population.  SONY 147915321 laptop keyboard

Road safety is a serious issue in Vietnam – on average, 30 people are killed in traffic accidents every day.[104] Traffic congestion is a growing problem in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, as the cities' roads struggle to cope with the boom in automobile use. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Rail

Main article: Rail transport in Vietnam

Vietnam's primary cross-country rail service is the Reunification Express, which runs from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi, covering a distance of nearly 2,000 kilometres. From Hanoi, railway lines branch out to the northeast, north and west; the eastbound line runs from Hanoi to Ha Long Bay, the northbound line from Hanoi to Thai Nguyen, and the northeast line from Hanoi to Lao Cai.IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

In 2009, Vietnam and Japan signed a deal to build a high-speed railway using Japanese technology; numerous Vietnamese engineers were later sent to Japan to receive training in the operation and maintenance of high-speed trains. The railway will be a 1,630-km-long[105] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

express route, serving a total of 26 stations, including Hanoi and the Thu Thiem terminus in Ho Chi Minh City.[106] Using Japan's Shinkansen technology,[107] the line will support trains travelling at a maximum speed of 360 kilometres (220 mi) per hour. The high-speed lines linking Hanoi to Vinh, DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

Nha Trang and Ho Chi Minh City will be laid by 2015. From 2015 to 2020, construction will begin on the routes between Vinh and Nha Trang and between Hanoi and the northern provinces of Lao Cai and Lang Son. SONY Vaio PCG-K315M laptop keyboard

As a coastal country, Vietnam has many major sea ports, including Cam Ranh, Da Nang, Hai Phong, Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Gai,Qui Nhơn, Vung Tau and Nha Trang. Further inland, the country's extensive network of rivers play a key role in rural transportation, with over 17,700 kilometres (11,000 mi) of navigable waterways carrying ferries, barges and water taxis.[108][109]  Lenovo Ideapad Y520 laptop keyboard

In addition, the Mekong and Red River deltas are vital to Vietnam's social and economic welfare – most of the country's population lives along or near these river deltas, and the major cities of Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi are situated near the Mekong and Red River deltas, respectively. Further out in the South China Sea, Vietnam currently controls the majority of the disputed Spratly islands.[110] HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

The census of 1 April 2009 recorded the population of Vietnam as standing at approximately 85.8 million, of which the Viet or Kinh ethnic group constituted nearly 73.6 million, or 85.8% of the population. The population had grown significantly from the 1979 census, which showed the total population of reunified Vietnam to be 52.7 million.[111] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

The dominant Kinh population is concentrated mainly in the alluvial deltas and coastal plains of the country. A largely homogeneous social and ethnic group, the Kinh possess significant political and economic influence over the country. However, Vietnam is also home to 54 ethnic minority groups, including the Hmong, Dao, Tay, Thai, and Nung. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

Many ethnic minorities – such as the Muong, who are closely related to the Kinh – dwell in the highlands, which cover two-thirds of Vietnam's territory. Before the Vietnam War, the population of the Central Highlands was almost exclusively Degar (including over 40 tribal groups); however,  HP Mini 110-3135dx Laptop Keyboard

Ngo Dinh Diem's South Vietnamese government enacted a program of resettling Kinh in indigenous areas.[112] The Hoa (ethnic Chinese)[113] and Khmer Krom people are mainly lowlanders. As Sino-Vietnamese relations soured in 1978 and 1979, some 450,000 Hoa left Vietnam.[114]  Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2516 Laptop Keyboard

The official national language of Vietnam is Vietnamese, a tonal monosyllabic Mon–Khmer language which is spoken by the majority of the population. In its early history, Vietnamese writing used Chinese characters. In the 13th century, the Vietnamese developed their own set of characters, SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard

referred to as Chữ nôm. The folk epic Đoạn trường tân thanh (also known as Truyện Kiều or The Tale of Kieu) by Nguyễn Du was written in Chữ nôm. Quốc ngữ, the romanized Vietnamese alphabet used for spoken Vietnamese, was developed in 17th century by the Jesuit Alexandre De Rhodes and several other Catholic missionaries. Quốc ngữ became widely popular and brought literacy to the Vietnamese masses during the French colonial period. TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam's minority groups speak a variety of languages, including Tày, Mường, Cham, Khmer, Chinese, Nùng, and H'Mông. The Montagnard peoples of the Central Highlands also speak a number of distinct languages. DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by some educated Vietnamese as a second language, especially by the older generation; Vietnam is also a full member of the Francophonie, and education has revived some interest in the language. Russian – and to a much lesser extent German, HP G42-380LA Laptop Keyboard

Czech and Polish – are known among some Vietnamese whose families had ties with the Soviet bloc during the Cold War. In recent years, as Vietnam's contacts with Western nations have increased, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

English has become more popular as a second language; the study of English is now obligatory in most schools, replacing French, though the latter is used at times in higher education. Chinese, Japanese, and Korean have also grown in popularity as Vietnam's links with China, Japan and South Koreahave strengthened. TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

For much of Vietnamese history, Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism have been the dominant religions, strongly influencing the national culture. About 85% of Vietnamese identify with Buddhism, though not all practice on a regular basis.[115][116][117][118][119][120][121] HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam's report for 1 April 2009, 6.8 million (or 7.9% of the total population) are practicing Buddhists, 5.7 milion (6.6%) are Catholics, 1.4 million (1.7%) are adherents of Hòa Hảo, 0.8 million (0.9%) practise Cao Đài, and 0.7 million (0.9%) are Protestants. In total, 15,651,467 Vietnamese (18.2%) are formally registered in a religion.[122] Reportedly, 81% of Vietnamese people do not believe in God.[123] SONY Vaio PCG-K33 Laptop Keyboard

According to the 2009 census, while over 10 million people have taken refuge in the Three Jewels,[124][125] the vast majority of Vietnamese people practice ancestor worship in some form. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

About 8% of the population are Christians, totalling around six million Roman Catholics and fewer than one million Protestants, according to the census of 2007. Christianity was first introduced to Vietnam by Portuguese and Dutch traders in the 16th and 17th centuries, and was further propagated by French missionaries in the 19th and 20th centuries, and to a lesser extent, Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

by American Protestant missionaries during the Vietnam War, largely among the Montagnards of South Vietnam. The largest Protestant churches are the Evangelical Church of Vietnam and the Montagnard Evangelical Church. Two-thirds of Vietnam's Protestants are reportedly members of ethnic minorities.[126] SAMSUNG R520 Laptop Keyboard

The Vietnamese government is widely seen as suspicious of Roman Catholicism. This mistrust originated during the 19th century, when some Catholics collaborated with the French colonists in conquering and ruling the country and in helping French attempts to install Catholic emperors, HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard

such as in the Lê Văn Khôi revolt of 1833. Furthermore, the Catholic Church's strongly anti-communist stance has made it an enemy of the Vietnamese state. The Vatican Church is officially banned, and only government-controlled Catholic organisations are permitted. However, the Vatican has attempted to negotiate the opening of diplomatic relations with Vietnam in recent years.[127] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

Several other minority faiths exist in Vietnam. About 3% of the population are adherents of Cao Dai, a syncretic modern religion whose followers are largely concentrated in Tay Ninh Province. TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard

Sunni and Cham Bani Islam is primarily practiced by the ethnic Cham minority, though there are also a few ethnic Vietnamese adherents in the southwest. In total, there are approximately 70,000 Muslims in Vietnam,[128] while around 50,000 Hindus and a small number of Baha'is are also in evidence. HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard

The Vietnamese government rejects allegations that it does not allow religious freedom. The state's official position on religion is that all citizens are free to their belief, and that all religions are equal before the law.[129] Nevertheless, only government-approved religious organisations are allowed; for example, the South Vietnam-founded Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam is banned in favour of a communist-approved body.[130] Lenovo 45N2071 Laptop Keyboard

EducationVietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges and universities, and a growing number of privately run and partially privatised institutions. General education in Vietnam is divided into five categories:kindergarten, elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and universities. A large number of public schools have been organized across the country to raise the national literacy rate, which stood at 90.3% in 2008.[131] HP G62-435DX Laptop Keyboard

A large number of Vietnam's most acclaimed universities are based in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Facing serious crises, Vietnam's education system is under a holistic program of reform launched by the government. SONY VAIO VGN-CR520E Laptop Keyboard

Education is not free; therefore, some poor families may have trouble paying tuition for their children without some form of public or private assistance. Regardless, school enrollment is among the highest in the world,[citation needed] and the number of colleges and universities increased dramatically in the 2000s, from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

In 2009, Vietnam's national life expectancy stood at 76 years for women and 72 for men,[132] and the infant mortalityrate was 12 per 1,000 live births.[133] As of 2009, 85% of the population has access to improved water sources.[132]However, malnutrition is still common in the rural provinces.[citation needed] Toshiba Satellite A200-1E1 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In 2001, government spending on health care corresponded to just 0.9% of Vietnam's gross domestic product (GDP), with state subsidies covering only about 20% of health care expenses.[134]  HP Pavilion tx2617ca laptop keyboard

In 1954, North Vietnam established a public health system that reached down to the hamlet level.[135] After the national reunification in 1975, this system was extended to the provinces of former South Vietnam.[citation needed] TOSHIBA Satellite L675D-S7050 laptop keyboard

In the late 1980s, the quality of healthcare declined to some degree as a result of budgetary constraints, a shift of responsibility to the provinces, and the introduction of charges. Inadequate funding has also contributed to a shortage of nurses,midwives, and hospital beds; in 2000, Vietnam had only 250,000 hospital beds, or 14.8 beds per 10,000 people, according to the World Bank.[134] HP Pavilion tx2500 laptop keyboard

Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has made significant progress in combating malaria, with the malaria mortality rate falling to about 5% of its 1990s equivalent by 2005, after the country introduced improved antimalarial drugs and treatment. However, tuberculosis cases are on the rise, SONY VAIO VGN-NR51 laptop keyboard

with 57 deaths per day reported in May 2004. With an intensified vaccination program, better hygiene, and foreign assistance, Vietnam hopes to reduce sharply the number of TB cases and annual new TB infections.[134]  Lenovo 45N2141 laptop keyboard

As of September 2005, Vietnam had diagnosed 101,291 HIV cases, of which 16,528 progressed to AIDS, and 9,554 died. However, the actual number of HIV-positive individuals is estimated to be much higher. On average, HP 605344-001 laptop keyboard

40–50 new infections are reported every day in Vietnam. As of 2007, 0.5% of the population is estimated to be infected with HIV, and this figure has remained stable since 2005.[136] In June 2004, the United States announced that Vietnam would be one of 15 nations to receive funding as part of a US$15 billion global AIDS relief plan.[134] HP G42-163LA laptop keyboard

Vietnam's culture has developed over the centuries from indigenous ancient Dong Son culture with wet rice agriculture as its economic base. To some extent, the national culture can be seen as part of the Sinosphere, drawing on elements ofConfucianism and Taoism in its traditional political system and philosophy. Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard

Vietnamese society is structured around làng(ancestral villages); all Vietnamese mark a common ancestral anniversary on the tenth day of the third lunar month.[137]The influences of immigrant peoples – such as the Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien and Hainan cultures – can also be seen, while the national religion of Buddism is strongly entwined with popular culture. In recent centuries, the influences of Western cultures, most notably France and the United States, have become evident in Vietnam. Lenovo ThinkPad T510-4313 laptop keyboard

The traditional focuses of Vietnamese culture are humanity (nhân nghĩa) and harmony (hòa); family and community values are highly regarded. Vietnam reveres a number of key cultural symbols, such as the Vietnamese dragon, which is derived from crocodile and snake imagery; Vietnam's National Father, Lạc Long Quân, is depicted as a holy dragon. The lạc – a holy bird representing Vietnam's National Mother, Âu Cơ – is another prominent symbol, while turtle and horse images are also revered.[138] SAMSUNG BA59-02487A laptop keyboard

In the modern era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and cultural programs. For many decades, foreign cultural influences – especially those of Western origin – were shunned. However, since the 1990s, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to Southeast Asian, European and American culture and media.[139] HP Mini 110 laptop keyboard

Media

Main article: Media of Vietnam

Vietnam's media sector is regulated by the government in accordance with the 2004 Law on Publication.[140] It is generally perceived that Vietnam's media sector is controlled by the government to follow the official communist party line, though some newspapers are relatively outspoken.[141] Lenovo 45N2071 laptop keyboard

The Voice of Vietnam is the official state-run national radio broadcasting service, broadcasting internationally via shortwave using rented transmitters in other countries, and providing broadcasts from its website. Vietnam Television is the national television broadcasting company. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

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Since 1997, Vietnam has extensively regulated public Internet access, using both legal and technical means. The resulting lockdown is widely referred to as the "Bamboo Firewall".[142] The collaborative project OpenNet Initiative classifies Vietnam's level of online political censorship to be "pervasive",[143] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

whileReporters without Borders considers Vietnam to be one of 15 global "internet enemies".[144] Though the government of Vietnam claims to safeguard the country against obscene or sexually explicit content through its blocking efforts, many politically and religiously sensitive websites are also banned.[145] Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

Music

Traditional Vietnamese music varies between the country's northern and southern regions. Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest musical form, and is traditionally more formal. The origins of Vietnamese classical music can be traced to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe.[146]  Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Vietnamese literature has a centuries-deep history. The country has a rich tradition of folk literature, based around the typical 6–to-8-verse poetic form named ca dao, which usually focuses on village ancestors and heroes.[147] Written literature has been found dating back to the 10th-century Ngô Dynasty, HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard

with notable ancient authors including Nguyễn Trãi, Trần Hưng Đạo, Nguyễn Du and Nguyễn Đình Chiểu. Some literary genres play an important role in theatrical performance, such as hát nóiin ca trù.[148] Some poetic unions have also been formed in Vietnam, such as the Tao Đàn. Vietnamese literature has in recent times been influenced by Western styles, with the first literary transformation movement – Thơ Mới – emerging in 1932. HP G42-283LA Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam has become a major tourist destination since the 1990s, assisted by significant state and private investment, particularly in coastal regions.[150]About 3.77 million international tourists visited Vietnam in 2009 alone.[151] ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

Popular destinations include Hanoi, Saigon, the former imperial capital of Hué, the World Heritage Sites of Hoi An and Mỹ Sơn, coastal regions such asNha Trang, the caves of Ha Long Bay and the Marble Mountains. Numerous tourist projects are under construction, such as the Binh Duong tourist complex, which possesses the largest artificial sea in Southeast Asia.[152] Lenovo 04W0872 Laptop Keyboard

On February 14, 2011, Joe Jackson, the father of American pop star Michael Jackson, attended a ground breaking ceremony for what will be Southeast Asia's largest entertainment complex, a five-star hotel and amusement park called Happyland. The US$2 billion project, which has been designed to accommodate 14 million tourists annually, is located in southern Long An province, near Ho Chi Minh City. It is expected that the complex will be completed in 2014.[153] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Laptop Keyboard

Clothing

The áo dài, a formal girl's dress, is worn for special occasions such as weddings and religious festivals. White áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across Vietnam. Áo dài was once worn by both genders, but today it is mostly the preserve of women, although men do wear it to some occasions, such as traditional weddings.[154] Other examples of traditional Vietnamese clothing include the áo tứ thân, HP Pavilion dv6-2162nr Laptop Keyboard

a four-piece woman's dress; the áo ngũ, thân in 5-piece form, mostly worn in the north of the country; the yếm, a woman's undergarment; the áo bà ba, rural working "pyjamas" for men and women;[155] and the áo gấm, a formal brocade tunic for government receptions, or áo the for grooms at weddings. Traditional headwear includes the standard conical nón lá and the "lampshade-like" nón quai thao. HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard

The Vovinam and Bình Ðịnh martial arts are widespread in Vietnam,[156] while soccer is the country's most popular team sport.[157] Other Western sports, such asbadminton, tennis, volleyball, ping-pong and chess, are also widely popular. Vietnam has participated in the Summer Olympic Games since 1952. ACER NSK-H3V1D Laptop Keyboard

Vietnam first competed in the Olympic Games in 1952 as the State of Vietnam. After the Partition of Vietnam in 1954, only South Vietnam competed in the Games, sending athletes to the 1956 and 1972 Olympics. Since the reunification of Vietnam in 1976, they have competed as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard

attending every Olympics from 1980 onwards. The present Vietnam Olympic Committee was formed in 1976[1] and recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1979. Vietnam has never competed in the Winter Olympics, but will begin in 2014. HP Pavilion DV6-1030us Laptop Keyboard

Vietnamese cuisine traditionally features a combination of five fundamental taste "elements" (Vietnamese: ngũ vị) in the overall meal: spicy (metal), sour (wood), bitter (fire), salty (water) and sweet (earth).[158] Common ingredients include fish sauce,shrimp paste, soy sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes use lemongrass, ginger, mint, SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B Laptop Keyboard

Vietnamese mint, long coriander, Saigon cinnamon, bird's eye chili, lime and basil leaves.[159] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is known for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil, and reliance on herbs and vegetables, and is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide.[160]  HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

In northern Vietnam, a colder climate limits the production and availability of spices. As a result, the foods here are often less spicy than those in other regions. Black pepper is used in place of chilis as the most popular ingredient to produce spicy flavors. In general, Northern Vietnamese cuisine is not bold in any particular flavor—sweet, HP Mini 110-3118cl Laptop Keyboard

salty, spicy, bitter, or sour. Most northern Vietnamese foods feature light and balanced flavors that result from subtle combinations of many different flavoring ingredients. The use of meats such as pork, beef, and chicken were relatively limited in the past. Freshwater fish,crustaceans, and mollusks—such as prawns, HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard

squids, shrimps, crabs, clams, mussels—are widely used. Many notable dishes of northern Vietnam are crab-centered (e.g., bún riêu). Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce, and limes are among the main flavoring ingredients. Being the cradle of Vietnamese civilization, northern Vietnam produces many signature dishes of Vietnam, such as c, bún riêu, and bánh cuốn, which were carried to central and southern Vietnam through the road of Vietnamese migration.[161] TOSHIBA Satellite Pro C650-EZ1533 laptop keyboard

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Kuala Lumpur

Kuala Lumpur (Malaysian pronunciation: [ˈkwalə ˈlumpʊ]) is the federal capital and most populous city in Malaysia.[5]The city covers an area of 243 km2 (94 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 1.6 million as of 2012.[5] Greater Kuala Lumpur, also known as the Klang Valley, is an urban agglomeration of 7.2 million.[6] It is among the fastest growing metropolitan regions in the country, in terms of population and economy. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur is the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia. The city was once home to the executive and judicial branches of the federal government, but they were moved to Putrajaya in early 1999.[7] Some sections of the judiciary still remains in the capital city of Kuala Lumpur. The official residence of the Malaysian King, the Istana Negara, is also situated in Kuala Lumpur. TOSHIBA P000497050 Laptop Keyboard

Rated as an alpha world city, Kuala Lumpur is the cultural, financial and economic centre of Malaysia due to its position as the capital as well as being a key city. Kuala Lumpur was ranked 48th among global cities by Foreign Policy's 2010 Global Cities Index[8] and was ranked 67th among global cities for economic and social innovation by the 2thinknow Innovation Cities Index in 2010.[9] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur is defined within the borders of the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and is one of three Malaysian Federal Territories.[10] It is an enclave within the state of Selangor, on the central west coast of Peninsular Malaysia.[11] SONY VAIO VGN-NR21Z/S Laptop Keyboard

Since the 1990s, the city has played host to many international sporting, political and cultural events including the 1998 Commonwealth Games and the Formula One Grand Prix. In addition, Kuala Lumpur is home to one of the tallest twin buildings in the world, the Petronas Twin Towers, which have become an iconic symbol of Malaysia's futuristic development. ACER Aspire 7741ZG Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur has its origins in the 1850s, when the Malay Chief of Klang, Raja Abdullah,[12] hired some Chinese labourers to open new and larger tin mines for tin prospectors.[13] The miners landed at the confluence of Sungai Gombak (previously known as Sungai Lumpur, meaning "muddy river") and Sungai Klang (Klang River) to open mines at Ampang, Pudu and Batu. These mines developed into a trading post which became a frontier town.[14] HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard

The tin prospectors settled in Ampang,[13] and formed gangs within themselves.[15]The two largest Chinese gangsters, the Hakka-dominated Hai San and the Hokkien-dominated Ghee Hin, frequently engaged in warfare to gain control of tin production in the town.[15] The incessant warfare between the two factions brought tin mine production to a standstill, prompting the British, HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

who ruled Selangor as one of theFederated Malay States at the time, to appoint a Chinese Kapitan (headman) to administer Kuala Lumpur.[16] Hiu Siew, the owner of a mine in Lukut, was elected as the first Kapitan. As one of the first traders to arrive in Ampang (along with Yap Ah Sze), he sold provisions to the miners in exchange for tin.[17]  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

During the early times, Kuala Lumpur had many problems, including the Selangor Civil War; it was also plagued by diseases and constant fires and floods.[13] Around the 1870s, the third Chinese Kapitan of Kuala Lumpur, HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

 Yap Ah Loy, emerged as leader, and became responsible for the survival and subsequent systematic growth of this town. He began to develop Kuala Lumpur from a small, obscure settlement into a booming mining town.[18] In 1880, the state capital of Selangor was moved from Klang to the more strategically advantageous Kuala Lumpur.[19] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

In 1881, a flood swept through the town, following a fire that had engulfed it earlier. These successive problems destroyed the town's structures of wood and atap(thatching). As a response, Frank Swettenham, the British Resident of Selangor, required that buildings be constructed of brick and tile.[19]  HP Mini 110-1032NR Laptop Keyboard

 Hence, Kapitan Yap Ah Loy bought a sprawling piece of real estate for the setting up of a brick industry which would spur the rebuilding of Kuala Lumpur. This place is the eponymousBrickfields. Hence, destroyed atap buildings were replaced with brick and tiled ones. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

He restructured the building layout of the city. Many of the new brick buildings mirrored those of shop houses in southern China, characterised by "five foot ways" as well as skilled Chinese carpentry work. This resulted in a distinct eclectic shop house architecture typical to this region.  IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

A railway line increased accessibility into the growing town. Development intensified in the 1890s, leading to the creation of a Sanitary Board. Kapitan Yap Ah Loy spent a sum of $20,000 to expand road access in the city significantly, linking up tin mines with the city, these roads include the main arterial roads ofAmpang Road, Pudu Road and Petaling Street.[citation needed] HP Pavilion DV6-6B00 Laptop Keyboard

As Chinese Kapitan, he was vested with wide powers on par with Malay community leaders. He implemented law reforms and introduced new legal measures. He would also preside over a small claims court. With a police force amounting only 6, he was able to uphold to rule of law. HP Mini 110-1169TU Laptop Keyboard

He built a prison which could accommodate 60 prisoners at any time. Kapitan Yap Ah Loy also built Kuala Lumpur's first school and a major tapioca mill in Petaling Street of which the Selangor's Sultan Abdul Samad had an interest.[citation needed] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

In 1896, Kuala Lumpur was chosen as the capital of the newly formed Federated Malay States.[20] A mixture of different communities settled in various sections of Kuala Lumpur. The Chinese mainly settled around the commercial centre of Market Square, east of the Klang River, and towards Chinatown. The Malays, Indian Chettiars, and Indian Muslims resided along Java Street (now Jalan Tun Perak). The Padang, now known as Merdeka Square, was the centre of the British administrative offices.[13] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

During World War II, Kuala Lumpur was captured by the Imperial Japanese Army on January 11, 1942. They occupied the city until August 15, 1945, when the commander in chief of the Japanese Seventh Area Army in Singapore and Malaya, Seishirō Itagaki, HP Pavilion dv6-2132se Laptop Keyboard

surrendered to the British administration following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[21] Kuala Lumpur grew through the war, the rubber and tin commodity crashes and the Malayan Emergency, during which Malaya was preoccupied with the communistinsurgency.[19] In 1957, the Federation of Malaya gained its independence from British rule.[22] Kuala Lumpur remained the capital through the formation of Malaysia on September 16, 1963. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

On 13 May 1969, the worst race riots on record in Malaysia took place in Kuala Lumpur.[23]The so-called May 13 incident refers to the occurrence of violence between members of theMalay and the Chinese communities, with the former apparently dissatisfied with their socio-political status at that time. The riots resulted in the deaths of 196 people,[23] and led to major changes in the country's economic policy to promote and prioritise Malay economic development over that of the other ethnicities. SONY Vaio VGN-AW31M/H laptop keyboard

Kuala Lumpur later achieved city status in 1972,[24] becoming the first settlement in Malaysia to be granted the status after independence. Later, on February 1, 1974, Kuala Lumpur became a Federal Territory.[25] Kuala Lumpur ceased to be the capital of Selangor in 1978 after the city of Shah Alam was declared the new state capital.[26] On 14 May 1990, Kuala Lumpur celebrated 100 years of local authority. The new federal territory Kuala Lumpur flag and anthem were introduced. Compaq Presario CQ36-105TX laptop keyboard

On February 1, 2001, Putrajaya was declared a Federal Territory, as well as the seat of the federal government.[27] The administrative and judicial functions of the government were shifted from Kuala Lumpur to Putrajaya. Kuala Lumpur however still retained its legislative function,[28] and remained the home of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Constitutional King).[29] HP Pavilion ze4600 laptop keyboard

The geography of Kuala Lumpur is characterized by a huge valley known as Klang Valley. The valley is bordered by theTitiwangsa Mountains in the east, several minor ranges in the north and the south and the Strait of Malacca in the west. Kuala Lumpur is a Malay term which translates to "muddy confluence" as it is located at the confluence of the Klang andGombak rivers.[30] SONY VAIO VGN-FS215S laptop keyboard

Located in the centre of Selangor state, Kuala Lumpur was previously under the rule of Selangor State Government. In 1974, Kuala Lumpur was separated from Selangor to form the first Federal Territory governed directly by the Malaysian Federal Government. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ19VN laptop keyboard

Its location on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which has wider flat land than the east coast, has contributed to its faster development relative to other cities in Malaysia.[citation needed] The municipality of the city covers an area of 243 km2 (94 sq mi),[3] with an average elevation of 21.95 m (72.0 ft).[31] SONY VAIO PCG-F150 laptop keyboard

Protected by the Titiwangsa Mountains in the east and Indonesia's Sumatra Island in the west, Kuala Lumpur has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af) which is warm and sunny, along with abundant rainfall, especially during the northeast monsoon season from October to March. Temperatures tend to remain constant. Maximums hover between 31 and 33 °C (88 and 91 °F) and have never exceeded 39.3 °C (102.7 °F), HP G61-110SA laptop keyboard

while minimums hover between 22 and 23.5 °C (72 and 74 °F) and have never fallen below 14.4 °C (57.9 °F).[32][33] Kuala Lumpur typically receives minimum 2,600 mm (100 in) of rain annually; June and July are relatively dry, but even then rainfall typically exceeds 127 millimetres (5.0 in) per month.[34][35] HP SG-46100-XUA laptop keyboard

Flooding is a frequent occurrence in Kuala Lumpur whenever there is a heavy downpour, especially in the city centre and downstream areas.[36] Dust particles from forest fires from nearby Sumatra sometimes cast a haze over the region. It is a major source of pollution in the city together with open burning, emission from motor vehicles and construction work.[37] Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

The local administration is carried out by the Kuala Lumpur City Hall, an agency under the Federal Territories Ministry of Malaysia.[40] It is responsible for public health and sanitation, waste removal and management, town planning, environmental protection and building control, Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

social and economic development, and general maintenance functions of urban infrastructure. Executive power lies with the mayor in the city hall, who is appointed for three years by the Federal Territories Minister. This system of appointing the mayor has been in place ever since the local government elections were suspended in 1970.[42] HP Pavilion DV7-2043cl laptop keyboard

Kuala Lumpur is home to the Parliament of Malaysia. The hierarchy of authority in Malaysia, in accordance with the Federal Constitution, has stipulated the three branches, of the Malaysian government as consisting of the Executive, Judiciary and Legislative branches. Whereas, the Parliament, which consists of theDewan Negara (Upper House / House of Senate) and Dewan Rakyat (Lower House / House of Representatives).[10] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

The city of Kuala Lumpur is represented in the Lower House by eleven Members of Parliament (MPs),[43] who are elected to five-year terms. The 2008 General Elections witnessed the first time opposition parties gained majority in the Federal Territory's parliamentary constituencies. SONY 148701522 laptop keyboard

The People's Coalition pact, comprising the Democratic Action Party (DAP), People's Justice Party (PKR), and Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS), swept five seats, four seats and one seat respectively, whereas the ruling National Front (Barisan Nasional) controls only one. SONY VAIO VGN-CR507E laptop keyboard

Kuala Lumpur and its surrounding urban areas form the most industrialized and economically, the fastest growing region in Malaysia.[44] Despite the relocation of federal government administration to Putrajaya, certain government institutions such as Bank Negara Malaysia (National Bank of Malaysia), Companies Commission of Malaysia and Securities Commission as well as most embassies and diplomatic missions have remained in the city.[45] HP Pavilion G60-213EM laptop keyboard

The city remains as the economic and business centre of the country. Kuala Lumpur is a centre for finance, insurance, real estate, media and the arts of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur is rated as an alpha world city, and is the only global city in Malaysia, according to the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC).[46] HP Pavilion dv6-2132se laptop keyboard

The infrastructure development in the surrounding areas such as the Kuala Lumpur International Airport at Sepang, the creation of the Multimedia Super Corridor and the expansion of Port Klang further reinforce the economic significance of the city. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S7446 Laptop Keyboard

Bursa Malaysia or the Malaysia Exchange is based in the city and forms one of its core economic activities. As of 20 November 2007, the market capitalisation stood at US$318.65 billion.[47] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Kuala Lumpur is estimated at RM73,536 million in 2008 with an average annual growth rate of 5.9 percent.[48][49] The per capita GDP for Kuala Lumpur in 2008 is RM48,556 with an average annual growth rate of 5.9 percent.[48][50] The total employment in Kuala Lumpur is estimated at around 838,400.[51] The service sector comprising finance, TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5165RM Laptop Keyboard

insurance, real estate, business services, wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels, transport, storage and communication, utilities, personal services and government services form the largest component of employment representing about 83.0 percent of the total.[51] The remaining 17 percent comes from manufacturing and construction. DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard

The average monthly household income for Kuala Lumpur was RM4,105 (USD 1,324) in 1999, up from RM3,371 (USD 1,087) four years prior, making it 66% higher than the national average.[52] In terms of household income distribution, 23.5% of households in the city earned more than RM5,000 (USD 1,613) per month compared to 9.8% for the entire country, while 8.1% earned less than RM1,000 (USD 323) a month.[52] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The large service sector is evident in the number of local and foreign banks and insurance companies operating in the city. Kuala Lumpur is poised to become the global Islamic Financing hub[53] with an increasing number of financial institutions providing Islamic Financing and the strong presence of Gulf's financial institutions such as the world's largest Islamic bank, TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard

Al-Rajhi Bank[54] and Kuwait Finance House. Apart from that, the Dow Jones & Company is keen to work with Bursa Malaysia to set up Islamic Exchange Trade Funds (ETFs), which would help raise Malaysia's profile in the Gulf.[55]The city has a large number of foreign corporations and is also host to many multi national companies’ regional offices or support centres, SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard

particularly for finance and accounting, and information technology functions. Most of the countries’ largest companies have their headquarters based here and as of December 2007 and excluding Petronas, there are 14 companies that are listed in Forbes 2000 based in Kuala Lumpur.[56] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Other important economic activities in the city are education and health services. Kuala Lumpur also has advantages stemming from the high concentration of educational institutions located within its boundaries, providing a wide range of courses. There are numerous public and private medical specialist centres and hospitals in the city which offer general health services and a wide range of specialist surgery and treatment catering to locals and tourists. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

There has been growing emphasis to expand the economic scope of the city into other service activities such as research and development which supports the rest of the economy of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur has been home for years to important research centres such as the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, the Forest Research Institute Malaysia and the Institute of Medical Research[57] and more research centres are expected to be established in the coming years.  HP Mini 210-1070NR Laptop Keyboard

Tourism plays an important role in the city’s service-driven economy. Many large worldwide hotel chains have a presence in the city. Kuala Lumpur is the sixth most visited city in the world, with 8.9 million tourist per year.[58][59] Tourism here is driven by the city's cultural diversity, TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard

relatively low costs and wide gastronomic and shopping variety. MICE tourism which mainly encompasses conventions— has expanded in recent years to become a vital component of the industry, and is expected to grow further once the Malaysian government's Economic Transformation Programme kicks in, and with the completion of a new 93,000m2-size MATRADE Centre in 2014.[60] Another notable trend is the increased presence of budget hotels in the city. HP Mini 311-1009TU Laptop Keyboard

The major tourist destinations in Kuala Lumpur include the Merdeka Square, the House of Parliament, the Petaling Street, the National Palace (Istana Negara), the Kuala Lumpur Tower, the National Museum, the Central Market, the National Monument,and religious sites such as theJamek Mosque and Batu Caves.[61SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

] Kuala Lumpur plays host to many cultural festivals such as theThaipusam procession at the Sri Mahamariamman Temple. Every year during the Thaipusam celebration, a silver chariot carrying the statue of Lord Muruga together with his consort Valli and Teivayanni would be paraded through the city beginning at the temple all the way to the Batu Caves.[62] SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

The entertainment hub of the city is mainly centred in the Golden Triangle encompassing Jalan P. Ramlee, Jalan Sultan Ismail and Ampang Road. Trendy nightclubs, bars and lounges, such as the Beach Club, Espanda, the Hakka Republic Wine Bar & Restaurant, Hard Rock Cafe, the Luna Bar, Nuovo, Rum Jungle, the Thai Club, Zouk, and many others are located here. HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur alone has 66 shopping malls and is the retail and fashion hub for Malaysia.[63]Shopping in Malaysia contributed RM7.7 billion (USD 2.26 billion) or 20.8 percent of the RM31.9 billion tourism receipts in 2006.[64] and Kuala Lumpur plays a big role in attracting consumers. ASUS U3S Laptop Keyboard

Suria KLCC is one of Malaysia's premier shopping destinations due to its location beneath thePetronas Twin Towers.

Apart from Suria KLCC, Bukit Bintang district has the highest concentration of shopping malls in Kuala Lumpur. It houses various cafes, alfresco dining outlets and retail malls. The Bangsardistrict also has a few shopping complexes, including Bangsar Village, Bangsar Shopping Centre,Mid Valley Megamall and The Gardens. TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5162 laptop keyboard

The Damansara subdivision north-west of Kuala Lumpur, though not in the city-proper, is the home of the only IKEA outlet in the country, and a cluster of locally operated malls like Cathay Multi Screen Cinemas, The Curve, Ikano Power Centre andOne Utama. HP Pavilion DV7-3173nr laptop keyboard

Apart from shopping complexes, Kuala Lumpur has designated numerous zones in the city to market locally manufactured products such as textiles, fabrics and handicrafts. The Chinatown of Kuala Lumpur, commonly known as Petaling Street, is one of them. Chinatown features many pre-independence buildings with Straits Chinese and colonial architectural influences.[65][66] SONY VAIO VGN-CS13G/Q laptop keyboard

Kuala Lumpur's Central Market (Pasar Seni), which was once the city's wet market, offers an assortment of arts and craft merchandise, varying from antiques and paintings to souvenirs and clothing. SONY 147915321 laptop keyboard

In 2000, the Malaysian Ministry of Tourism introduced the mega sale event for shopping in Malaysia. The mega sale event is held thrice a year — in March, May and December — during which all shopping malls are encouraged to participate to boost Kuala Lumpur as a leading shopping destination.[67] The city was ranked number 4th in the world's top ten best cities to shop in.[citation needed] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur is the most populous city in Malaysia, with a population of 1.6 million in the city proper as of 2010.[4] It has a population density of 6,696 inhabitants per square kilometre (17,340 /sq mi), and is the most densely populated administrative district in Malaysia.[3] Kuala Lumpur is a primate city as it has an estimated metropolitan population of 6.9 million as of 2007.[69][70] Residents of the city are colloquially known as KLites.[71] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur has a heterogeneous populace which includes the country's three major ethnic groups: theMalays, the Chinese and the Indians, although the city also has a mix of different cultures includingEurasians, as well as Kadazans, Ibans and other indigenous races from East Malaysia and Peninsula Malaysia.[51][72] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

According to the 2010 census by the Department of Statistics, the percentage of the Bumiputera population in Kuala Lumpur was around 44.2%, while the Chinese population comprised 43.2% and Indians 10.3%.[73] A notable phenomenon has been the increase in the presence of foreign residents in Kuala Lumpur, who now constitute about 9% of the city’s population.[51] DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

Birth rates in Kuala Lumpur have declined and resulted in the lower proportion of young people falling below 15 years old category from 33% in 1980 to slightly less than 27% in 2000.[51] On the other hand, the working age group of 15–59 increased from 63% in 1980 to 67% in 2000.[51] The elderly age group, 60 years old and above has increased from 4% in 1980 and 1991 to 6% in 2000.[51] HP V061130AS1 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur's rapid development has triggered a huge influx of low-skilled foreign workers from Indonesia, Nepal, Burma,Thailand, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Philippines, and Vietnam into Malaysia, many of whom enter the country illegally or without proper permits.[74][75] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur is plural and religiously diverse. The city has many places of worship catering to the multi-religious population. Islam is practiced primarily by the Malays and the Indian Muslim communities. Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism are practiced mainly among the Chinese. Indians traditionally adhere to Hinduism. Some Chinese and Indians also subscribe toChristianity.[76] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

As of 2010 Census the population of Kuala Lumpur is 46.4% Muslim, 35.7% Buddhist, 8.5% Hindu, 5.8% Christian, 1.1% Taoist or Chinese religion adherent, 2.0% follower of other religions, and 0.5% non-religious. TOSHIBA Satellite P500 Laptop Keyboard

Bahasa Malaysia is the principal language in Kuala Lumpur. Kuala Lumpur residents are generally literate in English, with a large proportion adopting it as their first language.[citation needed] It has a strong presence, especially in business and is a compulsory language taught in schools.[72] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Cantonese and Mandarin are prominent as they are spoken by the local majority Chinesepopulation.[77] Another major dialect spoken is Hakka. While Tamil is dominant amongst the local Indian population, other Indian languages spoken include Malayalam, Telugu, Hindi and Punjabi.[citation needed] HP Pavilion G60-442OM Laptop Keyboard

The architecture of Kuala Lumpur is a blend of old colonial influences, Asian traditions, Malay Islamic inspirations, modern, andpostmodern architecture mix.[78] Being a relatively young city compared with other Southeast Asian capitals such as Bangkok, Jakartaand Manila, most of Kuala Lumpur's colonial buildings were built toward the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries. DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

These buildings have Moorish, Tudor, Neo-Gothic or Grecian-Spanish style or architecture.[79] Most of the styling has been modified to use local resources and acclimatised to the local climate, which is hot and humid all year aroundHP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

Prior to the Second World War, many shophouses, usually two stories with functional shops on the ground floor and separate residential spaces upstairs, were built around the old city centre. These shop-houses drew inspiration from Straits Chinese and European traditions.[65][66] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

Some of these shophouses have made way for new developments but there are still many standing today around Medan Pasar (Old Market Square), Chinatown, Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Doraisamy, Bukit Bintang and Tengkat Tong Shin areas. TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

Independence coupled with the rapid economic growth from the 1970s to the 1990s and with Islam being the official religion in the country, has resulted in the construction of buildings with a more local and Islamic flavour arise around the city. Many of these buildings derive their design from traditional Malay items such as the songkok and the keris. DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

Some of these buildings have Islamic geometric motifs integrated with the designs of the building, signifying Islamic restriction on imitating nature through drawings.[80] Examples of these buildings are Menara Telekom, Menara Maybank, Dayabumi Complex, and the Islamic Centre.[81] HP G42-380LA Laptop Keyboard

Some buildings such as the Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia and National Planetarium have been built to masquerade as a place of worship, complete with dome and minaret, when in fact it is a place of science and knowledge. The 452-metre (1,483 ft) tall Petronas Twin Towers are the tallest twin buildings in the world.[82] They were designed to resemble motifs found in Islamic art.[83] TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

Late modern and postmodern architecture began to appear in the late-1990s and early-2000s. With the economic development, old buildings such as Bok House have been razed to make way for new ones. Buildings with all-glass shells exist throughout the city, with the most prominent examples being the Petronas Twin Towers and Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

As of. September 2010 Kuala Lumpur's central business district today has shifted around the Kuala Lumpur city centre (KLCC) where many new and tall buildings with modern and postmodern architecture fill the skyline. SONY Vaio PCG-K33 Laptop Keyboard

According to the World Tallest 50 Urban Agglomeration 2010 Projection by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, Kuala Lumpur was ranked 10th among cities to have most buildings above 100 meters with a combined height of 34035 meters from its 244 high rise buildings.[84] HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Lake Gardens, a 92-hectare (230-acre) manicured garden near the Malaysian Parliament building, was once home to a British colonial official. The park includes a Butterfly Park, Deer Park, Orchid Garden, Hibiscus Garden and the Kuala Lumpur Bird Park, Southeast Asia's largest bird park.[85] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

 Other parks in the city include the ASEAN Sculpture Garden,KLCC Park, Titiwangsa Lake Gardens, Metropolitan Lake Gardens in Kepong, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Taman Tasik Permaisuri (Queen’s Lake Gardens), Bukit Kiara Botanical Gardens, Equestrian Park and West Valley Park near TTDI, and Bukit Jalil International Park. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

There are three forest reserves within the city namely the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve in the city centre, the oldest gazetted forest reserve in the country 10.52 ha/26.0 acres, Bukit Sungai Putih Forest Reserve (7.41 ha/18.3 acres) and Bukit Sungai Besi Forest Reserve (42.11 ha/104.1 acres). SONY Vaio PCG-K215S Laptop Keyboard

Bukit Nanas, in the heart of the city centre, is one of the oldest virgin forests in the world within a city.[86] These residual forest areas are home to a number of fauna species particularly monkeys,treeshrews, pygmy goats, budgerigars, squirrels and birds. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

In Kuala Lumpur alone, there are 13 tertiary education institutions, 79 high schools, 155 elementary schools and 136 kindergartens.[89] HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard

There are several notable institutions located in the city which have existed for more than 100 years, such as Bukit Bintang Girls' School (1893–2000, when shifted to Taman Shamelin Perkasa in Cheras and renamed SMK Seri Bintang Utara), Victoria Institution (1893); Methodist Girls' School (1896); Methodist Boys' School (1897); Convent Bukit Nanas (1899) and St. John's Institution (1904). FUJITSU Lifebook S7110 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur is home to the University of Malaya. Established in 1949, it is the oldest university in Malaysia, and one of the oldest in the region.[90] It is also the most prestigious tertiary institution in Malaysia, SONY VAIO VGN-FS315H Laptop Keyboard

having been ranked first among the universities in Malaysia in the 2004 Times Higher Education (THES) international rankings.[91] In recent years, the number of international students at University of Malaya has risen, a result of increasing efforts made to attract more international students.[92] SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard

Other universities located in Kuala Lumpur include International Islamic University Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman University,UCSI University, International Medical University, Open University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur University, Wawasan Open Universityand the branch campus of the National University of Malaysia and University of Technology Malaysia. ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard

In the metropolitan state of Selangor which surrounds KL to form Greater Kuala Lumpur, there are also various universities, most notably the branch campuses of University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus located in Semenyihand Monash University Malaysia Campus in Sunway. HP Pavilion dv6-2112ez laptop keyboard

The National Defence University of Malaysia is located at Sungai Besi Army Base, at the southern part of central Kuala Lumpur. It was established to be a major centre for military and defence technology studies. This institution covers studies in the field of army,navy, and air force.[93] Toshiba Satellite A200-1E1 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Kuala Lumpur is a hub for cultural activities and events in Malaysia. Among the centres is the National Museum which is situated along the Mahameru Highway. Its collection comprises artifacts and paintings collected throughout the country.[94]Kuala Lumpur also has an Islamic Arts Museum which houses more than seven thousand Islamic artefacts including rare exhibits as well as a library of Islamic art books.[95]  HP Pavilion tx2617ca laptop keyboard

However, the museum's collection not only concentrate on works from the Middle East, but also includes work from elsewhere in Asia, such as China and Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur has a Cultural Craft Complex coupled with a museum that displays a variety of textile, ceramic, metal craft and weaved products. TOSHIBA Satellite L675D-S7050 laptop keyboard

All the information of the production process are portrayed in diorama format complete with historical facts, technique and traditionally engineered equipment. Among the processes shown are pottery making, intricate wood carving, silver-smithing, weaving songket cloth, stamping batik patterns on cloth and boat making.[96] HP Pavilion tx2500 laptop keyboard

Royal Selangor has an ultra modern visitor's centre, which allows tours to be conducted through its pewter museum, gallery and its factory. In its pewtersmithing workshop, "The School of Hard Knocks," participants are taught to create their own pewter dish using traditional tools and methods. SONY VAIO VGN-NR51 laptop keyboard

The premier performing arts venue is the Petronas Philharmonic Hall. The resident orchestra is the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra (MPO), consisting of musicians from all over the world and features regular concerts, chamber concerts and traditional cultural performances.[97]  Lenovo 45N2141 laptop keyboard

The Kuala Lumpur Performing Arts Centre (KLPac) in Sentul West is one of the most established centres for the performing arts, notably theatre, music, and film screening, in the country. It has housed many local productions and has been a supporter of local and regional independent performance artists.[98] HP 605344-001 laptop keyboard

One of the highlights in 2006 was the KL Sing Song 2006 music fest which featured Malaysian singer-songwriters of various cultural backgrounds, from both West and East Malaysia, through two days of performances and workshops.[99] SONY Vaio PCG-K315M laptop keyboard

The National Art Gallery of Malaysia is located on Jalan Temerloh, off Jalan Tun Razak on a 5.67-hectare (14.0-acre) site neighbouring the National Theater (Istana Budaya) and National Library. The architecture of the gallery incorporates elements of traditional Malay architecture,  Lenovo Ideapad Y520 laptop keyboard

as well as contemporary modern architecture. The National Art Gallery serves as a centre of excellence and trustee of the national art heritage. The Petronas Art Gallery, another centre for fine art, is situated in Kuala Lumpur City Centre (KLCC). The Galeri Tangsi near Dataran Merdeka houses exhibitions of works by local and foreign artists. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur holds the Malaysia International Gourmet Festival annually.[100] Another event hosted annually by the city is the Kuala Lumpur Fashion Week,[101]which includes international brands as well as local designers. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur also is becoming the center for new media, innovation and creative industry development in the region and hosts the international creative industry event, Kreative.Asia. Kreative.Asia gathers local, regional and international experts in the creative industry who are involved in the creation, development and delivery of interactive content, arts, community and applications. Kuala Lumpur is at the forefront of the convergence of media, art, culture and communications. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur has numerous parks, gardens and open spaces for recreational purposes. Total open space for recreational and sport facilities land use in the city has increased significantly by 169.6 percent from 5.86 square kilometres (1,450 acres) in 1984 to 15.8 square kilometres (3,900 acres) in 2000.[102]  HP Mini 110-3135dx Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur is one of the host cities for the Formula One World Championship,[103] the open-wheel auto racing A1 Grand Prix[104] and the Motorcycle Grand Prix[105] with races being held at Sepang International Circuit in the neighbouring state of Selangor, next to the Kuala Lumpur International Airport.  Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2516 Laptop Keyboard

The Formula One event contributes significantly to tourist arrivals and tourism income to Kuala Lumpur. This was evident during the Asian Financial Crisis in 1998. Despite cities around Asia suffering declining tourist arrivals, Kuala Lumpur tourist arrivals increased from 6,210,900 in 1997 to 10,221,600 in 2000, or 64.6% increase in tourist arrivals.[106] SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard

KL Grand Prix CSI 5*,[107] a five-star international showjumping equestrian event is held annually in the city. This annual event draws the world’s top riders and their prized horses to Malaysia. SONY VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Laptop Keyboard

Other annual sport events hosted by the city include the KL Tower Run,[108] the KL Tower International BASE Jump Merdeka Circuit and the Kuala Lumpur International Marathon. Kuala Lumpur is also one of the stages of the Tour de Langkawi cycling race.[109]  Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The annual Malaysia Open Super Series badminton tournament is held in Kuala Lumpur.

Kuala Lumpur has a considerable array of sports facilities of international class after hosting the 1998 Commonwealth Games. Many of these facilities including the main stadium (with running track and a football field), HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard

hockey stadium and swimming pools are located in the National Sports Complex at Bukit Jalil while a velodrome and more swimming pools are located in Bandar Tun Razak, next to the Taman Tasik Permaisuri Lake Gardens. There are also soccer fields, local sports complexes, HP G42-283LA Laptop Keyboard

swimming pools and tennis courts scattered around the suburbs. Badminton and ‘takraw’ courts are usually included in community halls. The AFC House which is the current headquarters of the Asian Football Confederation is built on a 4-acre (16,000 m2) complex in the Kuala Lumpur suburb of Bukit Jalil. ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur has several golf courses including the Kuala Lumpur Golf and Country Club (KLGCC) and the Malaysia Civil Service Golf Club in Kiara and the Berjaya Golf Course at Bukit Jalil. The city also has numerous large private fitness centres run by Celebrity Fitness, Fitness First, True Fitness and major five-star hotels. Lenovo 04W0872 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur is also the birthplace of Hashing which began in December 1938 when a group of British colonial officers and expatriates began meeting on Monday evenings to run, in a fashion patterned after the traditional British Paper Chase or "Hare and Hounds".TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur will host the 127th IOC Session in 2015 where the IOC will vote to elect the host city of the 2022 Winter Olympics.[110]

There are several newspapers, including daily newspapers, opposition newspaper, business newspapers and also a digital newspaper, based in Kuala Lumpur. Daily newspapers include The Star, Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

New Straits Times, theSun, Malay Mail, Kosmo!, Utusan Malaysia, Berita Harian, Harian Metro. Mandarin and Tamil newspapers are also published here on a daily basis, for example Guang Ming Daily, Sin Chew Daily, China Press, Nanyang Siang Pau and Tamil Nesan, Malaysia Nanban, Makkal Osai. SAMSUNG R520 Laptop Keyboard

Opposition newspapers such as Harakah, Suara Keadilan, Siasah and Wasilah are also based here. Kuala Lumpur is also the headquarters for Malaysia's state media public governmentterrestrial television stations such: HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard

TV1 and TV2 a subsidiary of RTM and TV Alhijrah a subsidiary of Alhijrah Media Corporationwhich of Media Prima Berhad and Worldview Broadcasting Channel (Malaysia) Sendirian Berhad a media corporation which houses the private commercial terrestrial television stations such: TV3, NTV7, 8TV, TV9, TV Alhijrah and Worldview Broadcasting Channel. Programmes are broadcast in Malay, English, Chinese and Tamil. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

The city is also home to the country's main pay television service such: Astro, a satellite television service, which broadcasts local and international television channels such: CNN International Asia Pacific, BBC World News, STAR World, FOX Movies Pemium andHBO Asia.[111] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 Laptop Keyboard

Al-Jazeera, the Doha-based Arab news network has launched a new English-speaking channel called Al-Jazeera English to boost its international viewership with one of its broadcast centres based in Kuala Lumpur.[112] HP Pavilion DV6-1014el Laptop Keyboard

Phoenix TV, a Hong Kong based television broadcaster has also announced plans to expand its regional business by partnership with local satellite TV provider,Astro.[113] In March 2008, Time Out, an international listings and events magazine, was launched in Kuala Lumpur as its 24th global city. Lenovo 45N2071 Laptop Keyboard

Kuala Lumpur has been featured in all aspects of popular culture such as movies, television, music and books. Television series set in Kuala Lumpur include A Tale of 2 Cities (starring Rui En and Joanne Peh). Movie theaters set in Kuala Lumpur include Police Story 3: Super Cop (starring Jackie Chan and Michelle Yeoh), Entrapment (starring Sean Connery and Catherine Zeta-Jones) HP G62-435DX Laptop Keyboard

and Children of Men (starring Clive Owen) where the Petronas Twin Towers were depicted in flames for a few seconds.[114] Kuala Lumpur was referenced in an episode of The Simpsons entitled "Bart Gets Famous", in which the Bumblebee Man stated that "a powerful tidal wave in Kuala Lumpur has killed 120 people".[115] SONY VAIO VGN-CR520E Laptop Keyboard

Books which were set in Kuala Lumpur include KL 24/7 by Ida M Rahim, Shireen Zainudin and Rizal Zainudin,[116] My Life As a Fake by Peter Carey, and Democracy by Joan Didion.[117] Kuala Lumpur is mentioned in many songs by local Malaysian artists such as Keroncong Kuala Lumpur by P. Ramlee,[118] Kuala Lumpur, Ibu Kota by Saloma, Chow Kit Road by Sudirman Arshad, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Senyumlah Kuala Lumpur by Alleycats, Streets of Kuala Lumpur by Murkyway, K.L. by Vandal, Kuala Lumpur by Poetic Ammo, Anak Dara by Azmyl Yunor, KL by Too Phat, Kotarayaku by Hujan & Altimet, Lagu Untuk Kuala Lumpur by Tom. Kuala Lumpur, along with Putrajaya, Hp Envy 13-1000 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan  

was featured in the music video for the single "Dancing Out" by South Korean boy band Super Junior.[119] Kuala Lumpur was also one of the destinations in The Amazing Race Asia and The Amazing Race.[120] Games have also been set in Kuala Lumpur. They include three levels of the gameHitman 2: Silent Assassin and two levels of the PlayStation 2 game Burnout Dominator. Hp Envy 13-1001TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Unlike most other Asian cities, driving is the main mode of commuting in Kuala Lumpur.[121] Hence, every part of the city is well connected by highways. As capital ofMalaysia, Kuala Lumpur has a comprehensive road network that leads to the rest ofPeninsular Malaysia. Hp Envy 13-1002TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In terms of air connectivity, Kuala Lumpur is served by two airports. The main airport,Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) at Sepang, Selangor, which is also the aviation hub of Malaysia, is located about 50 kilometres (31 mi) south of city. The other airport is Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport, also known as Subang Skypark and served as the main international gateway to Kuala Lumpur from 1965 until KLIA opened in 1998. Hp Envy 13-1003XX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

KLIA connects the city with direct flights to destinations in six continents around the world,[122] and is the main hub for the national carrier, Malaysia Airlines and low-cost carrier, AirAsia. KLIA can be reached using the KLIA Ekspres high-speed train service from KL Sentral which takes twenty-eight minutes,[123] while travelling by car or bus via highway will take about an hour. Hp Envy 13-1004TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Air Asia flights do not fly out of KLIA main terminal but from the Low Cost Carrier Terminal (LCCT), which is served by buses from KL Sentral, and is a 20–30 minute taxi ride from the main terminal. As of 2007, Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport is only used for chartered and turboprop flights by airlines such as Firefly and Berjaya Air.[124] Hp Envy 13-1005TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Public transport in Kuala Lumpur and the rest of the Klang Valley covers a variety of transport modes such as bus, rail and taxi. Despite efforts to promote usage of public transportation, utilisation rates are low as only 16 percent of the population used public transportation in 2006.[121] Hp Envy 13-1006TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Rail transport in Kuala Lumpur encompasses light rail, rapid transit, monorail andcommuter rail. Kuala Lumpur is served by three separate rail systems which meet in the city and extend towards other parts of the Klang Valley, namely RapidKL Light Rail Transit, KL Monorail, and KTM Komuter. Hp Envy 13-1007EV Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

These lines have underground, elevated or at-grade stations around the city. The main rapid transit hub is KL Sentral which facilitates as an interchange station for the rail systems. KL Sentral is also a hub for intercity railway operated by KTM Intercity. It provides rail services to as far as Singapore in the south, and Hat Yai, Thailand, in the north.[125] Hp Envy 13-1007LA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The largest public transportation operator in Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley isRapidKL.[126] Since the take over from Intrakota Komposit Sdn Bhd, RapidKL has redrawn the entire bus network of Kuala Lumpur and Klang Valley metropolitan area[127] to increase ridership and improve Kuala Lumpur's public transportation system. Hp Envy 13-1007TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The management of RapidKL has adopted the hub and spoke system to provide greater connectivity, and cut down the need of more buses. RapidKL is also the operator of two light rail lines in Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley, namely Ampang Line and Kelana Jaya Line.[128] By 2016, the Sungai Buloh – Kajang Line will be completed providing a faster efficient ride to the city centre. Hp Envy 13-1008TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In Kuala Lumpur, most taxis have distinctive white and red liveries. Kuala Lumpur is one of the major ASEAN city with taxis extensively running on natural gas. Taxis can be hailed from taxi stands or from the streets. Nevertheless, taxis are known to charge high rates for foreigners. Hp Envy 13-1010ER Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Kuala Lumpur is served by Port Klang, located about 64 km (40 mi) southwest of the city. The port is the largest and busiest in the country handling about 6.3 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) of cargo in 2006.[129] Hp Envy 13-1015ER Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (malay:) is the head of state of Malaysia. The office was established in 1957 when theFederation of Malaya (now Malaysia) gained independence. A literal English translation of the title is "He who is made Lord". However, common alternatives are "King",Hp Envy 13-1030CA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

 "Monarch King", "Supreme Ruler", "Paramount Ruler", "Supreme Head of State", "Supreme Head of the Federation" or "Supreme Head of State of the Federation". Malaysia is aconstitutional monarchy with an elected monarch as head of state. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is one of the few elected monarchs in the world. Hp Envy 13-1030NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Since 1993, the full title in Malay has been, Seri Paduka Baginda Yang di-Pertuan Agong (His Conqueror Majesty The Supreme Lord of the Federation). Prior to that, the honorific Ke Bawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia (The Dust Under The Feet of His Majesty) was also used. The consort of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is called the Raja Permaisuri Agong (Queen Lady Consort). The couple are addressed in English as "His Majesty" and "Her Majesty".Hp Envy 13-1050EA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In Malaysia's constitutional monarchy, the role of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is largely ceremonial. The constitution specifies that the executive power of the Federal government is vested in the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and is exercised by him on the advice of the federal Council of Ministers. The latter is headed by the Prime Minister, appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong from among the elected members of Parliament. Hp Envy 13-1050EF Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The 14th and current Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Sultan Abdul Halim of Kedah. His reign began on 13 December 2011 after his election by the Conference of Rulers. He previously served as the fifth Yang di-Pertuan Agong from 1970 to 1975. He is the first ruler to hold the position twice, as well as the oldest elected to the office at 83 years old.[1] The installation of the new Yang di-Pertuan Agong was held on 11 April 2012, at the new Istana Negara at Jalan Duta. Hp Envy 13-1050EG Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In the event of a vacancy of the office (by death, resignation, or deposition by a majority vote of the rulers), the Conference of Rulers elects a new Yang di-Pertuan Agong as if the previous term had expired. The new Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected for a full five-year term. After his term expires, the Conference holds a new election, in which the incumbent would not be re-elected. Hp Envy 13-1050ES Laptop CPU Cooling Fan  

The position de facto rotates among the nine Rulers. The selection of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong initially followed an order based on the seniority (calculated by length of reign) of each Ruler in 1957 at the Federation of Malaya's independence from the United Kingdom. The Conference of Rulers, which has the power to disqualify a candidate, has sometimes varied the original seniority order, as noted above. Minors are automatically disqualified from office. Hp Envy 13-1099EO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Conference of Rulers has met regularly since 1895. The membership of the council includes the four governors (Yang di-Pertua Negeri), but only royal rulers are allowed to vote and stand for election as Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Hp Envy 13-1099XL Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The election is carried out by a secret ballot. The ballot papers used are not numbered, but marked with the same pen and ink, and are inserted into a ballot box. Only the Rulers participate in the election. Hp Envy 13-1100 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

A Ruler may appoint another Ruler as his proxy to vote on his behalf if he is unable to attend the Election Meeting.

During the election process, the Keeper of the Rulers’ Seal distributes the ballot with only one candidate. Each Ruler is requested to indicate whether the candidate is suitable or not to be elected as Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Hp Envy 13-1940EZ Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The most junior Ruler, who is not listed as nominee for the office of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, or the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is appointed to count the ballot papers together with the Keeper of the Rulers’ Seal. Hp Envy 13t-1000 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The nominee must have obtained a majority of five votes before the Ruler presiding over the Election Meeting offers him the office of Yang di-Pertuan Agong. If the successful nominee declines the offer or the nominated Ruler fails to secure the required majority votes, the voting process is repeated with the nomination of the second most senior Ruler in the Seniority List of Rulers. Rulers are named, and stand for election in turn. Hp Envy 14 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The process is completed only after the Ruler has accepted the offer of the office of Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Conference declares the Ruler as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to hold office for a term of five years. The ballot papers are destroyed in the presence of the Rulers as soon as the result of the election is announced. Hp Envy 14-1000wx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

On taking office as Yang di-Pertuan Agong, he appoints a regent for the duration of his five-year term for the state which he rules. Usually, but not always, the regent is a close relative. The regent acts as head of state in that state for every purpose except for the role of head of Islam, which is retained by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Hp Envy 14-1000xx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

This cycle was originally established based on the seniority. However, the current Rulers are named (and stand as a candidate) according to the cycle, irrespective of whether they are currently the most senior. Hp Envy 14-1001tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Since independence from British Colonial Rule, this has been the order of elected Yang di-Pertuan Agong. However, the order is not precedent and the election to the position of Yang di-Pertuan Agong is at the pleasure of the Conference of Rulers. As an Elective Monarchy, there is no line of succession to the throne of Malaysia. Hp Envy 14-1002tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan Four of the states of Malaysia have no hereditary royal rulers. These are Penang and Malacca in Peninsular Malaysia, andSabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo. These four states, along with Malaysia's three federal territories, never supply the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Hp Envy 14-1003tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

A Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong) is elected by the same process immediately after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The office is usually (but not always) held by the ruler next in line after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong exercises the functions of the head of state during the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's absence, or inability to exercise functions owing to illness or infirmity. SONY PCG-GR3N Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong does not automatically advance to become the Yang di-Pertuan Agong when a vacancy occurs in the office. The Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong acts as the head of state before the elections of the new Yang di-Pertuan Agong and Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Sultan Muhammad V of Kelantan from 13 December 2011 holds this office. SONY PCG-GR3N/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The discretionary powers of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong pertain chiefly to appointing the Prime Minister, withholding consent to dissolve Parliament, and calling meetings with the Conference of Rulers "concerned solely with the privileges, position, honours and dignities of Their Royal Highnesses." SONY PCG-GR5BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Under the Westminster System, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is expected to appoint a Prime Minister who will command the confidence of a majority of the elected lower house of Parliament, the Dewan Rakyat. Should the Prime Minister be or become unacceptable, he may be forced out by a vote of no confidence, SONY PCG-GR5E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

which would require the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to dissolve Parliament on advice of the Prime Minister, or refuse to dissolve Parliament and appoint someone else as Prime Minister. Conventionally, the Prime Minister is the head of the party with a majority in Parliament. Since independence in 1957, this has been the Barisan Nasional(National Front, formerly known as the Alliance). SONY PCG-GR5E/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong renews the appointment of a Prime Minister after every general election until the minister decides to step down. Whenever the Prime Minister chooses to dissolve Parliament, he calls for a general election. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong may choose to refuse a Prime Minister's request to dissolve Parliament, as one of his discretionary powers. SONY PCG-GR5F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Trooping the Colour in Malaysia, although inherted from the British, has transformed into a grander and more Malaysian celebration on the first Saturday of June annually live on Kuala Lumpur's Independence Square, which is both open to invited guests and the general public. As the Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong takes the salute on this day together with the commanders of the three services of the Malaysian Armed Forces, SONY PCG-GR5F/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

the Joint Forces Command, Malaysia and the members of the Malaysian Armed Forces Council, of which he is the chairman, plus military personnel and veterans in attendance. He wears the No.1 dress uniform on that day, and as each of the 8 state monarchs are Colonel-in-Chief of selected Malaysian Army regiments as well as of the Royal Malaysian Air Force and the Sultan of Selangor serves as Commodore-in-Chief of the Royal Malaysian Navy, Acer Aspire 1412LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

he wears that regiment's colored sash as part of his ceremonial uniform (for the Army), or the RMAF blue or RMN white no.1 dress uniform. Acer Aspire 1412LCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

All three branches of the Armed Forces - the Malaysian Army (represented by the Royal Malay Regiment or other units), the Royal Malaysian Navy, and the Royal Malaysian Air Force - participate in the Trooping, in their No. 1 uniforms. The band in attendance is either the Central Band of the Armed Forces or the Band of the National Defence University. Acer Aspire 1412LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Colours Party and the Escort for(to) the Colours also reflect the three participant Armed Forces branches. The Colours Party is composed of Ensigns, Colour Sergeants and assistant soldiers making up three Colours Parties from the Army, and there is also a single Colour Party each from the Navy and the Air Force. The Escort for(to) the Colours is a composite company, Acer Aspire 1412LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

comprising an Army platoon and a squad each from the Navy and Air Force ready to receive their respective colours during the ceremony. The Parade Field Officer, Brigade Major and Adjutant are also from all the Armed Forces branches, and so too are the Regimental Sergeants-Major and Colour Sergeants. Acer Aspire 1412WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In 1993, amendments to the Malaysian constitution removed the legal immunity of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the rulers in their personal capacity. A Special Court (Makhamah Khas Raja-raja) is established where civil and criminal proceedings can be made against a ruler with the approval of the Attorney General. The right to sue a ruler is limited to Malaysian citizens following a precedent. The Special Court also have jurisdiction where a ruler initiates legal actions against any party. Acer Aspire 1413 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

When a ruler is charged with an offence in the Special Court, he is required to stop exercising the functions of a ruler. In the event of a ruler being sentenced to imprisonment, he will cease to be a ruler unless a free pardon is granted.[4] Acer Aspire 1413LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong or any ruler cannot pardon himself or his immediate family. In such case, they may request clemency from the Conference of Rulers. Acer Aspire 1413LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong cannot be sued in court for his actions while carrying out his official duties. Any claims can be made against the federal government. Acer Aspire 1413LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

A global city (also called world city or sometimes alpha city or world center) is a city generally considered to be an important node in the globaleconomic system. The concept comes from geography and urban studies and rests on the idea that globalization can be understood as largely created, facilitated, and enacted in strategic geographic locales according to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade. Acer Aspire 1414LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The most complex of these entities is the "global city", whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through socio-economic means.[1] The use of "global city", as opposed to "megacity", was popularized by sociologist Saskia Sassen in her 1991 work, Acer Aspire 1414WLCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

 The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo[2] though the term "world city" to describe cities that control a disproportionate amount of global business dates to at least the May 1886 description of Liverpool by The Illustrated London News.[3] Patrick Geddes also used the term "world city" later in 1915.[4] Cities can fall from such categorization, as in the case of cities that have become less cosmopolitan and less internationally renowned in the current era, e.g., Alexandria, Egypt;Coimbra, Portugal; and Thessaloniki, Greece. Acer Aspire 1414WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The first attempt to define, categorize and rank global cities using relational data was made in 1998 by Jon Beaverstock, Richard G. Smith and Peter J. Taylor, who all worked at the time at Loughborough University in the United Kingdom.[24] Further by academic researchers like Ronald Daus in Germany (Free University of Berlin), who focused on "extra-European cities, Acer Aspire 1415 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

predominantly in the Southern hemisphere".[25] Together, Beaverstock, Smith and Taylor established theGlobalization and World Cities Research Network. A roster of world cities was outlined in the GaWC Research Bulletin 5 and ranked cities based on their connectivity through four "advanced producer services": accountancy, advertising, banking/finance, and law.[5] The GaWC inventory identifies three levels of global cities and several sub-ranks.[26] Acer Aspire 1415LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Acer Aspire 1640 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Acer Aspire 1640LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Indonesia

Indonesia (i/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ in-də-nee-zhə or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ in-doh-nee-zee-ə), officially the Republic of Indonesia(Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Indonesian pronunciation: [rɛpʊblik ɪndonesia]), is a country in Southeast Asia andOceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 17,508 islands.[5] It has 34 provinces with over 238 million people, HP G62-a05SG Laptop Keyboard

and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard

 Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's sixteenth largest by nominal GDP and fifteenthlargest by purchasing power parity. SONY VAIO VGN-CR520E Laptop Keyboard

The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. HP G62-225NR Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during theAge of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, SONY VAIO VGN NR260E/W Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia secured its independenceafter World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters,corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change. HP Pavilion G60-230 Laptop Keyboard

Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest—and politically dominant—ethnic group are the Javanese. A shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, HP Pavilion DV6-1010ea Laptop Keyboard

"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity"literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level ofbiodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread.[6][7] SONY 148781311 Laptop Keyboard

Fossils and the remains of tools show that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", between 1.5 million years ago and as recently as 35,000 years ago.[15][16][17] Homo sapiensreached the region by around 45,000 years ago.[18] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

 In 2011 evidence was uncovered in neighbouring East Timor, showing that 42,000 years ago these early settlers had high-level maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.[19] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, pushed the indigenous Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.[20] HP Pavilion dv6-2117eo Laptop Keyboard

Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,[21]allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries BCE.[22] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[23][24] HP AEUT3U00140 Laptop Keyboard

From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism andBuddhism that were imported with it.[25][26] Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and HinduMataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, ACER ZU2 Laptop Keyboard

leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram'sPrambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.[27]  HP 576835-001 Laptop Keyboard

Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[28] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences,  DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard

which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[29] The first regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesia began in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.[30] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.[31] DELL Vostro 3500 Laptop Keyboard

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.[32] Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the Indonesian National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Japanese occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,[33][34] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.[35] A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.[36] Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.[37][38][39][40] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and the resulting conflict ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence[38][41] (with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969).[42] SONY VAIO VGN-AR270P laptop keyboard

Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).[43] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.[44][45][46] HP Pavilion DV6-1010ea laptop keyboard

Around 500,000 people are estimated to have been killed.[47][48] The head of the military, General Suharto, outmaneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration[49] was supported by the US government,[50][51][52] HP V107046AS1 laptop keyboard

 and encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.[33][53][54] HP Pavilion dv3-2155mx laptop keyboard

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian financial crisis.[55] This led to popular protest against the New Order which led to Suharto's resignation in May 1998.[56] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.[57] HP Pavilion dv6-2117eo laptop keyboard

Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism slowed progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian disconSONY VAIO VGN-NW11S/S Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia[60] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislativebranches.[61] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/V Laptop Keyboard

The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.[62] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.[63] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.[64] Compaq Presario CQ56-105EW Laptop Keyboard

The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members.[65] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.[61] Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.[66] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.[67] DELL V100830AS1 Laptop Keyboard

Most civil disputes appear before a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; HP AEUT5U00010 Laptop Keyboard

a State Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases.[68] HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relationssince the Suharto "New Order" have been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.[70] Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.[65] ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard

The nation restored relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.[68] Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950,[71] and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation).[65] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31S/V Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia is signatory to theASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the WTO, and has historically been a member of OPEC, although it withdrew in 2008 as it was no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.[65] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.[72] The deadliest bombing killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Baliresort town of Kuta in 2002.[73] The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia'stourism industry and foreign investment prospects.[74] SAMSUNG N148 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes marines), and Air Force(TNI–AU).[75] The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

 and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.[76] One of the reforms following the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in parliament; nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.[77] ASUS F5Z laptop keyboard

Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.[78][79] Following a sporadic thirty-year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 laptop keyboard

a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.[80] In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.[81] SONY VAIO VGN-NW320F/T laptop keyboard

Administratively, Indonesia consists of 34 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), which are further subdivided into districts (kecamatan or distrik in Papua and West Papua), and again into administrative villages (either desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in West Sumatra, or gampong in Aceh). COMPAQ Presario CQ40-107AU laptop keyboard

Village is the lowest level of government administration in Indonesia. Furthermore, a village is divided into several community groups (Rukun-Warga (RW)) which are further divided into neighbourhood groups (Rukun-Tetangga (RT)). In Java the desa (village) is divided further into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), these units are the same as Rukun-Warga. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, HP 413554-001 Laptop Keyboard

the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief). HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard

The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create certain elements of an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia Law (Islamic law).[82] ACER AD0405HB-GD3 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

 Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution and its willingness to join Indonesia as a republic.[83] Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was split into Papua and West Papua in February 2003.[84][85] Jakarta is the country's special capital region.  APPLE MacBook Pro 15 inch MA463KH A Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N, and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.[86] These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo, Compaq Presario C733TU Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor. Indonesia shares maritime borders across narrow straits with Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Palau to the north, and with Australia to the south. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.[87] SONY NSK-S8101 Laptop Keyboard

At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area.[88] Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,[89] although Java, the world's most populous island,[90] has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft),  Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

 Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.[91] TOSHIBA KFRSBA064A laptop keyboard

Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerousvolcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,[92] including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, HP G61-455EE laptop keyboard

was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,[93] and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However,volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.[94] HP Pavilion dv6-2164sl laptop keyboard

Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70–125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).[95] Compaq Presario CQ62 laptop keyboard

Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil),[96] and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.[97] The islands of the Sunda Shelf(Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to the Asian mainland, and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover approximately 60% of the country.[98] In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. ACER Aspire 4720 Laptop Keyboard

Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna.[99] Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.[100] SONY VAIO VGN-N220E/W Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.[101] Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, ACER Aspire 5540 Laptop Keyboard

estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.[8] Indonesia is one of Coral Triangle countries with the world's greatest diversity of coral reef fish with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only.[102] The British naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution and peace of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.[103] Known as the Wallace Line, HP Mini 110-1038TU Laptop Keyboard

it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.[104] The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[103] APPLE MacBook Air A1304 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[105] Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; HP G61-435ST Laptop Keyboard

and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[105] Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.[106] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

and 15 identified as critically endangered, includingBali Starling,[107] Sumatran Orangutan,[108] and Javan Rhinoceros.[107] Much of Indonesia's deforestation is caused by forest clearing for the palm oil Industry, which has cleared 18 million hectares of forest for palm oil expansion. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

Palm oil expansion requires land reallocation as well as changes to the local and natural ecosystems. Palm oil expansion can generate wealth for local communities if done right. If down wrong it can degrade ecosystems and cause social conflicts.[109] SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia has a mixed economy in which both the private sector and government play significant roles.[110] The country is the largest economy in Southeast Asia and a member of the G-20 major economies.[111] Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product (nominal), as of 2012 was US$928.274 billion with estimated nominal per capita GDP was US$3,797, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,943 (international dollars).[112] ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard

June 2011: At World Economic Forum on East Asia, Indonesian president said Indonesia will be in the top ten countries with the strongest economy within the next decade. The gross domestic product (GDP) is about $1 trillion[3] and the debt ratio to the GDP is 26%.[113] The industry sector is the economy's largest and accounts for 46.4% of GDP (2010), this is followed by services (37.1%)HP G42-363LA Laptop Keyboard

and agriculture (16.5%). However, since 2010, the service sector has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 48.9% of the total labor force, this has been followed by agriculture (38.3%) and industry (12.8%).[114] Agriculture, however, had been the country's largest employer for centuries.[115][116]  HP Pavilion dv6-2180ep laptop keyboard

According to World Trade Organization data, Indonesia was the 27th biggest exporting country in the world in 2010, moving up three places from a year before.[117] Indonesia's main export markets (2009) are Japan (17.28%), Singapore (11.29%), the United States (10.81%), and China (7.62%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Singapore (24.96%), China (12.52%),HP Pavilion DV6-1119ez laptop keyboard

and Japan (8.92%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs. And the country's major export commodities include oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, rubber, and textiles.[118] ACER Aspire One A150-1905 laptop keyboard

In the 1960s the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, Compaq Presario CQ71-411EZ laptop keyboard

and negligible investment. Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment. (See Berkeley Mafia). Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, HP Pavilion dv6-2132et laptop keyboard

and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates, averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981.[119] Following further reforms in the late 1980s,[120] foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-orientedmanufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.[121][122] TOSHIBA Satellite P505D-S8934 laptop keyboard

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian financial crisis of 1997–98. During the crisis there were sudden and large capital outflows leading the rupiah to go into free fall. Against the US dollar the rupiah dropped from about Rp 2,600 in late 1997 to a low point of around Rp 17,000 some months later and the economy shrank by a remarkable 13.7%. These developments led to widespread economic distress across the economy and contributed to the political crisis of 1998 which saw Suharto resign as president.[123] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

The rupiah later stabilised in the Rp. 8,000-10,000 range[124] and a slow but steady economic recovery ensued. However political instability, slow economic reform, and corruption slowed the recovery.[6][7] Transparency International, for example, has since ranked Indonesia below 100 in its Corruption Perceptions Index.[125][126] Since 2007, however, with the improvement in banking sector and domestic consumption, national economic growth has accelerated to over 6% annually[127][128][129] HP Pavilion dv6-2002ew Laptop Keyboard

and this helped the country weather the 2008–2009 global recession.[130] The Indonesian economy performed strongly during the Global Financial Crisis and in 2012 its GDP grew by over 6%.[131] The country regained its investment grade rating in late 2011 after losing it in the 1997.[132]However, as of 2011, an estimated 12.5% of the population lived below the poverty line and the official open unemployment rate was 6.7%.[118] HP Pavilion dv6-2006tx Laptop Keyboard

ccording to the 2010 national census, the population of Indonesia is 237.6 million,[133] with high population growth at 1.9%.[134] 58% of the population lives on Java,[133] the world's most populous island.[90] In 1961 the first post-colonial census gave a total population of 97 million.[135] Despite a fairly effective family planning program that has been in place since the 1960s, population is expected to grow to around 265 million by 2020 and 306 million by 2050.[136]  HP Mini 110-1032NR Laptop Keyboard

There are around 300 distinct native ethnic groups in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects.[137][138] Most Indonesians are descended from Austronesian-speaking peoples whose languages can be traced to Proto-Austronesian (PAn), which possibly originated in Taiwan. SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard

Another major grouping are Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia.[87][139] The largest ethnic group is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant.[140] TheSundanese, ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups.[141]  HP 417525-B31 Laptop Keyboard

A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.[142] Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.[143][144][145] Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising 3–4% of the population.[146] Much of the country's privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-Indonesian-controlled,[147][148] which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.[149][150][151] SONY VGN-FE28H Laptop Keyboard

The official national language is Indonesian, a form of Malay. It is based on the prestige dialect of Malay, that of theJohor-Riau Sultanate, which for centuries had been the lingua franca of the archipelago, standards of which are the official languages in Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. Lenovo Ideapad G565 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian is universally taught in schools, consequently it is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It was promoted by Indonesian nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language under the name Bahasa Indonesia on the proclamation of independence in 1945. DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard

Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages and dialects, often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken as the language of the largest ethnic group.[118] On the other hand, Papua has over 270 indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages,[152] in a region of about 2.7 million people. Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard

While religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,[153] the government officially recognizes only six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism.[154] Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with 87.2% of Indonesians being Muslim according to the 2010 census.[155] HP Pavilion dv3-2320tx Laptop Keyboard

On 21 May 2011 the Indonesian Sunni-Shia Council (MUHSIN) was established. The council aims to hold gatherings, dialogues and social activities. It was an answer to violence committed in the name of religion.[156] The majority of Muslims in Indonesia are Sunni. 9% of the population was Christian, 3% Hindu, and 2% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese,[157] TOSHIBA Satellite P500 Laptop Keyboard

and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.[158] Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.[159] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ440 Laptop Keyboard

Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries,[160][161] and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period.[162][163][164] A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local customs and beliefs.[165] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia has about 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural identities developed over centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. GATEWAY M-6834 Laptop Keyboard

Textiles such as batik,ikat, ulos and songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant. HP Mini 110-3112tu Laptop Keyboard

Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling.[166] The most popular sports are badminton and football. Indonesian players have won the Thomas Cup (the world team championship of men's badminton) thirteen of the twenty-six times that it has been held since 1949, as well as numerous Olympic medals since the sport gained full Olympic status in 1992. Its women have won the Uber Cup, SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard

the female equivalent of the Thomas Cup, twice, in 1994 and 1996. Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as, caci in Flores, and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art. HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.[167] Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.[168] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. The Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,[169] although it declined significantly in the early 1990s.[170] Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.[169] Compaq Presario CQ57-319WM Laptop Keyboard

The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians;[171] and proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist.[172][173] Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly rooted oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.[174] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media.[175] The TV market includes ten national commercial networks, HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008,[176] Internet usage was estimated at 12.5% in September 2009.[177] More than 30 million cell phones are sold in Indonesia each year, and 27 percent of them are local brands.[178] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia has the largest economy in Southeast Asia and is one of the emerging market economies of the world. The country is also a member of G-20 major economies and classified as a newly industrialized country.[11] It has amarket economy in which the government plays a significant role through ownership of state-owned enterprises (the central government owns more than 160 enterprises) DELL NSK-DJD01 Laptop Keyboard

and the administration of prices of a range of basic goods including fuel, rice, and electricity. In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis that began in mid-1997 the government took custody of a significant portion of private sector assets through acquisition ofnonperforming bank loans and corporate assets through the debt restructuring process. Since 2004 the economy has recovered and growth has accelerated to over 6% in recent years.[12] HP G61-320US Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia regained its investment grade rating from Fitch Rating in late 2011, and from Moody's Rating in early 2012, after losing its investment grade rating in December 1997 at the onset of the Asian financial crisis which Indonesia spent more than Rp450 trillion ($50 billion) to bail out lenders from banks. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Fitch raised Indonesia's long-term and local currency debt rating to BBB- from BB+ with both ratings is stable. Fitch also predicted that economy will grow at least 6.0% on average per year through 2013, despite a less conducive global economic climate. Moody’s raised Indonesia's foreign and local currency bond ratings to Baa3 from Ba1 with a stable outlook.[13] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time of Soekarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation,  HP G42-372LA Laptop Keyboard

shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment. Following President Soekarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment. (See Berkeley Mafia). Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates, averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981.[14] High levels of regulation and a dependence on declining oil prices,  HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

growth slowed to an average of 4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988. A range of economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s including a managed devaluation of the rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and de-regulation of the financial sector,[15] Foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.[16][17] DELL Vostro 1014 Laptop Keyboard

GDP per capita grew 545% from 1970 to 1980 as a result of the sudden increase in oil export revenues from 1973 to 1979.[18]

High levels of economic growth from 1987–1997 masked a number of structural weaknesses in Indonesia's economy. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Growth came at a high cost in terms of weak and corrupt institutions, severe public indebtedness through mismanagement of the financial sector, the rapid depletion of Indonesia’s natural resources, and a culture of favors and corruption in the business elite.[19] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

 Corruption particularly gained momentum in the 1990s, reaching to the highest levels of the political hierarchy as Suharto became the most corrupt leader according toTransparency International's corrupt leaders list.[20][21] As a result, the legal system was very weak, and there was no effective way to enforce contracts, collect debts, or sue for bankruptcy. Banking practices were very unsophisticated, ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

with collateral-based lending the norm and widespread violation of prudential regulations, including limits on connected lending. Non-tariff barriers, rent-seeking by state-owned enterprises, domestic subsidies, barriers to domestic trade and export restrictions all created economic distortions. HP 576835-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Asian Financial Crisis that began to affect Indonesia in mid-1997 became an economic and political crisis. Indonesia's initial response was to float the rupiah, raise key domestic interest rates, and tighten fiscal policy. In October 1997, SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reached agreement on an economic reform program aimed at macroeconomic stabilization and elimination of some of the country's most damaging economic policies, such as the National Car Program and the clove monopoly, GATEWAY AEMA2TAU015 Laptop Keyboard

HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

both involving family members of President Soeharto. The rupiah remained weak, however, and President Soeharto was forced to resign in May 1998. In August 1998, Indonesia and the IMF agreed on an Extended Fund Facility (EFF) under President B.J Habibie that included significant structural reform targets. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

President Abdurrahman Wahid took office in October 1999, and Indonesia and the IMF signed another EFF in January 2000. The new program also has a range of economic, structural reform and governance targets. HP Pavilion dv6-2106ea Laptop Keyboard

The effects of the financial and economic crisis were severe. By November 1997, rapid currency depreciation had seen public debt reach US$60 bn, imposing severe strains on the government's budget.[22] In 1998, real GDP contracted by 13.7%. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 and real GDP growth for the year was 0.3%. Inflation reached 77% in 1998 but slowed to 2% in 1999. HP G42-380LA Laptop Keyboard

The rupiah, which had been in the Rp 2,600/USD1 range at the start of August 1997 fell to 11,000/USD1 by January 1998, with spot rates around 15,000 for brief periods during the first half of 1998.[23] It returned to 8,000/USD1 range at the end of 1998 and has generally traded in the Rp 8,000–10,000/USD1 range ever since, with fluctuations that are relatively predictable and gradual. SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

In late 2005 Indonesia faced a 'mini-crisis' due to international oil prices rises and imports. The currency reached Rp 12,000/USD1 before stabilizing. The government was forced to cut its massive fuel subsidies, which were planned to cost $14 billion for 2005, in October.[24] This led to a more than doubling in the price of consumer fuels, resulting in double-digit inflation. The situation had stabilized, but the economy continued to struggle with inflation at 17% in 2005. HP Pavilion dv6-2160sv Laptop Keyboard

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For 2006, Indonesia's economic outlook was more positive. Economic growth accelerated to 5.1% in 2004 and reached 5.6% in 2005. Real per capita income has reached fiscal year 1996/1997 levels. Growth was driven primarily by domestic consumption, which accounts for roughly three-fourths of Indonesia's gross domestic product. The Jakarta Stock Exchange was the best performing market in Asia in 2004 up by 42%.Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

Problems that continue to put a drag on growth include low foreign investment levels, bureaucratic red tape, and very widespread corruption which causes 51.43 trillion Rupiah or 5.6573 billion US Dollar or approximately 1.4% of GDP to be lost on a yearly basis.[25] However, there is very strong optimism with the conclusion of peaceful elections during the year 2004 and the election of the reformist president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. HP Pavilion dv6-2053eo laptop keyboard

The unemployment rate in February 2007 was 9.75%.[26] Despite a slowing global economy, Indonesia’s economic growth accelerated to a ten-year high of 6.3% in 2007. This growth rate was sufficient to reduce poverty from 17.8% to 16.6% based on the Government’s poverty line and reversed the recent trend towards jobless growth, with unemployment falling to 8.46% in February 2008.[27][28] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7340 laptop keyboard

Unlike many of its more export-dependent neighbors, it has managed to skirt the recession, helped by strong domestic demand (which makes up about two-thirds of the economy) and a government fiscal stimulus package of about 1.4% of GDP, announced earlier this year. After India and China, Indonesia is currently the third fastest growing economy in the Group of Twenty (G20) industrialized and developing economies. Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

The $512 billion economy expanded 4.4% in the first quarter from a year earlier and last month, the IMF revised its 2009 forecast for the country to 3-4% from 2.5%. Indonesia enjoyed stronger fundamentals with the authorities implemented wide-ranging economic and financial reforms, including a rapid reduction in public and external debt, strengthening of corporate and banking sector balance sheets and reducing bank vulnerabilities through higher capitalization and better supervision.[29] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Since the late 1980s, Indonesia has made significant changes to its regulatory framework to encourage economic growth. This growth was financed largely from private investment, both foreign and domestic. U.S. investors dominated the oil and gas sector and undertook some of Indonesia's largest mining projects. HP Pavilion dv3-2157cl laptop keyboard

In addition, the presence of US banks, manufacturers, and service providers expanded, especially after the industrial and financial sector reforms of the 1980s. Other major foreign investors included India, Japan, the United Kingdom, Singapore, the Netherlands, Qatar, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea. HP Pavilion ze2315us laptop keyboard

The economic crisis made continued private financing imperative but problematic. New foreign investment approvals fell by almost two-thirds between 1997 and 1999. The crisis further highlighted areas where additional reform was needed. Frequently cited areas for improving the investment climate were establishment of a functioning legal and judicial system, SONY VAIO PCG-FRV28 laptop keyboard

adherence to competitive processes, and adoption of internationally acceptable accounting and disclosure standards. Despite improvements in the laws in recent years, Indonesia's intellectual property rights regime remains weak; lack of effective enforcement is a major concern. Under Suharto, HP Pavilion dm3-1040EV Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia had moved toward private provision of public infrastructure, including electric power, toll roads, and telecommunications. The financial crisis brought to light serious weaknesses in the process of dispute resolution, however, particularly in the area of private infrastructure projects. HP G56-118CA Laptop Keyboard

Although Indonesia continued to have the advantages of a large labor force, abundant natural resources and modern infrastructure, private investment in new projects largely ceased during the crisis. DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

As of 28 June 2010, the Indonesia Stock Exchange had 341 listed companies with a combined market capitalization of $269.9 billion.[30] As at November 2010, two thirds of the market capitalization was in the form of foreign funds and only around 1% of the Indonesian population have stock investments.[31] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

 Efforts are further being made to improve the business and investment environment. Within the World Bank's Doing Business Survey,[32] Indonesia rose to 122 out of 178 countries in 2010, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

from 129 in the previous year. Despite these efforts, the rank is still below regional peers and an unfavourable investment climate persists. For example, potential foreign investors and their executive staff cannot maintain own bank accounts in Indonesia, unless they are tax-paying local residents (paying tax in Indonesia for their worldwide income)[citation needed].  DELL 9J.N6782.A01 Laptop Keyboard

From 1990 to 2010, Indonesian companies have been involved in 3,757 mergers and acquisitions as either acquiror or target with a total known value of $137bn.[33]In 2010, 609 transactions have been announced which is a new record. Numbers had increased by 19% compared to 2009. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The value of deals in 2010 was 17 bil. USD which is the second highest number ever. In the entire year of 2012, Indonesia realised total investments $32.5 billion, surpassing its annual target $25 billion, Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM) reported on January 22. The primary investments were in the mining, transport and chemicals sectors.[34] HP Pavilion dv6-2155tx Laptop Keyboard

In 2011, the Indonesian government announced a new Masterplan (known as the MP3EI, or Masterplan Perceptatan dan Perluasan Pembangunan Ekonomi Indonesia, theMasterplan to Accelerate and Expand Economic Development in Indonesia). The aim of the Masterplan was to encourage increased investment, particularly ininfrastructure projects across Indonesia.[35] DELL XPS M1530 Laptop Keyboard

U.S. exports to Indonesia in 1999 totaled $2.0 billion, down significantly from $4.5 billion in 1997. The main exports were construction equipment, machinery, aviation parts, chemicals, and agricultural products. U.S. imports from Indonesia in 1999 totaled $9.5 billion and consisted primarily of clothing, machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, natural rubber, and footwear. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Economic assistance to Indonesia is coordinated through the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI), formed in 1989. It includes 19 donor countries and 13 international organizations that meet annually to coordinate donor assistance. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided development assistance to Indonesia since 1950. Initial assistance focused on the most urgent needs of the new republic, including food aid, infrastructure rehabilitation, health care, and training. Through the 1970s, a time of great economic growth in Indonesia, USAID played a major role in helping the country achieve self-sufficiency in rice production and in reducing the birth rate. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

USAID's current program aims to support Indonesia as it recovers from the financial crisis by providing food aid, employment generating activities, and maintaining critical public health services. USAID is also providing technical advisers to help the Indonesian Government implement economic reforms and fiscal decentralization and is supporting democratization and civil society development activities through non-governmental organizations. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia was the only Asian member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) outside of the Middle East until 2008 and is currently a net oil importer. In 1999, Crude and condensate output averaged 1.5 million barrels (240,000 m3) per day, and in the 1998 calendar year the oil and gas sector, including refining, contributed approximately 9% to GDP. As of 2005, TOSHIBA A000014900 Laptop Keyboard

Indonesian crude oil and condensate output was 1.07 million barrels (170,000 m3) per day. This is a substantial decline from the 1990s, due primarily to aging oil fields and a lack of investment in oil production equipment. This decline in production has been accompanied by a substantial increase in domestic consumption, about 5.4% per year, leading to an estimated US$1.2 billion cost for importing oil in 2005. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The state owns all petroleum and mineral rights. Foreign firms participate through production-sharing and work contracts. Oil and gas contractors are required to finance all exploration, production, and development costs in their contract areas; they are entitled to recover operating, exploration, and development costs out of the oil and gas produced. HP G62-229WM Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment. As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil products. It had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$ 7 billion in 2004 .[39] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages .[40] The government has stated the cuts in subsidies are aimed at reducing the budget deficit to 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.6% last year. At the same time, in order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens. HP Probook 4710S Laptop Keyboard

Indonesia is the world's largest tin market. Although mineral production traditionally centered on bauxite, silver, and tin, Indonesia is expanding its copper, nickel, gold, and coal output for export markets. SAMSUNG NP-NB30-JP01 laptop keyboard

In mid-1993, the Department of Mines and Energy reopened the coal sector to foreign investment, with the result that the leading Indonesian coal producer now is a joint venture between UK firms - BP and Rio Tinto. Total coal production reached 74 million metric tons in 1999, including exports of 55 million tons. HP Mini 110-3102st laptop keyboard

From January to August 2011, the coal production was 235 million tons and targeted 2011 coal production between 340 to 370 million tons. Not all of the productions can be exported due to there are Domestic Market Obligation (DMO) regulation which should fullfil the domestic market. Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard

In 2012, the DMO is 24.72%. And starting 2014, there are no low-grade coal exports allowed, so the upgraded brown coal process which crank up the calorie value of coal from 4,500 kcal/kg to 6,100 kcal/kg will be built in South Kalimantan and South Sumatra.[41] HP Mini 110-3040ss laptop keyboard

Two US firms operate three copper/gold mines in Indonesia, with a Canadian and British firm holding significant other investments in nickel and gold, respectively. In 1998, the value of Indonesian gold production was $1 billion and copper, $843 million. Receipts from gold, copper, and coal comprised 84% of the $3 billion. Earned in 1998 by the mineral mining sector. India fortune groups like Vedanta Resources and Tata Group have significant mining operations in Indonesia. SONY Vaio VGN-FW139E laptop keyboard

April 2011: With additional of Tayan, West Kalimantan Alumina project which produce 5% of the world's alumina production, Indonesia will be the world's second largest Alumina producer. The project will not make the ores to become Aluminium due to there are 100 types of Alumina derivatives which can be developed further by other companies in Indonesia.[42]  HP Mini 110-3536tu laptop keyboard

Since the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s which contributed to the end of the Suharto regime in May 1998, Indonesia’s public finances have undergone a major transformation. The financial crisis caused a huge economic contraction and a commensurate decline in public spending. Debt and public subsidies increased dramatically while development spending was sharply curtailed.  ASUS X88S laptop keyboard

Now, one decade later, Indonesia has moved out of crisis and into a situation in which the country once again has sufficient financial resources to address its development needs. This change has come about as a result of prudent macroeconomic policies, the most important of which has been very low budget deficits. Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

Also, the way in which the government spends money has been transformed by the 2001 "big bang" decentralization, which has resulted in over one-third of all government spending being transferred to sub-national governments by 2006. Equally important, in 2005, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

spiraling international oil prices caused Indonesia’s domestic fuel subsidies to run out of control, threatening the country’s hard won macroeconomic stability. Despite the political risks of major price hikes in fuel driving more general inflation, the government took the brave decision to slash fuel subsidies. SONY V-0702BIAS1-US laptop keyboard

This decision freed up an extra US$10 billion for government spending on development programs.[54] Meanwhile, by 2006 an additional US$5 billion had become available thanks to a combination of increased revenues boosted by steady growth of the overall economy, and declining debt service payments, HP Mini 210-1199DX laptop keyboard

a hangover from the economic crisis.[54] This meant that in 2006 the government had an extra US$15 billion to spend on development programs.[54] The country has not seen “fiscal space” of such magnitude since the revenue windfall experienced during the oil boom of the mid-1970s. HP Pavilion dv6-2143ca laptop keyboard

However, an important difference is that the 1970s oil revenue windfall was just that: a lucky and unforeseen financial boon. In contrast, the current fiscal space has been achieved as a direct result of sound and carefully thought through government policy decisions. SONY VAIO VGN-N350N laptop keyboard

However, while Indonesia has made significant progress in freeing up financial resources for its development needs, and this situation is set to continue in the next few years, subsidies continue to place a heavy burden on the government’s budget. The 2005 reductions on subsidies notwithstanding, total subsidies still accounted for close to US$ 30 billion in government spending in 2012, or over 15% of the total budget.[54] TOSHIBA Satellite L550-ST5701 laptop keyboard

One of the results of the Habibie government (May 1998 to August 2001) to decentralize power across the country in 2001 was that increasingly high shares of government spending have been channeled through sub-national governments. As a result, provincial and district governments in Indonesia now spend around 40% of total public funds, which represents a level of fiscal decentralization that is even higher than the OECD average.  HP Mini 110-3135dx Laptop Keyboard

Given the level of decentralization that has occurred in Indonesia and the fiscal space now available, the Indonesian government has a unique opportunity to revamp the country’s neglected public services. If carefully managed, this could allow the lagging regions of eastern Indonesian to catch up with other more affluent areas of the country in terms of social indicators. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

It could also enable Indonesian to focus on the next generation of reforms, namely improving quality of public services and targeted infrastructure provision. In effect, the correct allocation of public funds and the careful management of those funds once they have been allocated have become the main issues for public spending in Indonesia going forward. IBM Thinkpad R61i Laptop Keyboard

For example, while education spending has now reached 17.2% of total public spending ─ the highest share of any sector and a share of 3.9% of GDP in 2006, compared with only 2.0% of GDP in 2001 ─ in contrast total public health spending remains below 1.0% of GDP.[54] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-150EP Laptop Keyboard

Meanwhile, public infrastructure investment has still not fully recovered from its post-crisis lows and remains at only 3.4% of GDP.[54] One other area of concern is that the current level of expenditure on administration is excessively high. Standing at 15% in 2006, this suggests a significant waste of public resources.[54][55] HP Mini 210-2030ew Laptop Keyboard

Inflation has long been another problem in Indonesia. Because of political turmoil, the country had once suffered hyperinflation, with 1,000% annual inflation between 1964 and 1967,[60] and this had been enough to create severe poverty and hunger.[61] Even though the economy recovered very quickly during the first decade of New Order administration (1970–1981), HP Compaq G50-118NR Laptop Keyboard

never once was the inflation less than 10% annually. The inflation slowed during mid-1980s, however, the economy was also languid due to the decrease of oil price that reduced its export revenue dramatically. HP Pavilion tx2627cl laptop keyboard

The economy was again experiencing rapid growth between 1989-1997 due to the improving export-oriented manufacturing sector, still the inflation rate was higher than economic growth, and this caused widening gap among several Indonesians. The inflation peaked in 1998 during the Asian financial crisis, with over 58%, causing the raise in poverty level as bad as the 1960s crisis.[62] ACER Extensa 5235 laptop keyboard

During the economic recovery and growth in recent years, the government has been trying to decline the inflation rate. However, it seems that Indonesian inflation has been affected by the global fluctuation and domestic market competition.[63] As of 2010, the inflation rate was approximately 7%, when its economic growth was 6%. To date, inflation is affecting Indonesian lower middle class, especially those who can't afford food after price hikes.[64][65] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5242BN laptop keyboard

The Fitch Group is a jointly owned subsidiary of FIMALAC and Hearst Corporation. On April 12, 2012, Hearst increased their stake in the Fitch Group to 50%.[2] Fitch Ratings and Fitch Solutions are part of the Fitch Group. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Fitch Ratings, dual-headquartered in New York and London, was one of the three Nationally Recognized Statistical Rating Organizations (NRSRO) designated by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission in 1975, together with Moody's andStandard & Poor's. It is considered one of the "Big Three credit rating agencies" (Standard & Poor's, Moody's Investor Service and Fitch Ratings). [3] SONY AEGD1U00020 laptop keyboard

The firm was founded by John Knowles Fitch on December 24, 1913 in New York City as the Fitch Publishing Company. It merged with London-based IBCA Limited in December 1997. In 2000 Fitch acquired both Chicago-based Duff & Phelps Credit Rating Co. (April) and Thomson Financial BankWatch (December). SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard

Fitch Ratings is the smallest of the "big three" NRSROs, covering a more limited share of the market than S&P and Moody's, though it has grown with acquisitions and frequently positions itself as a "tie-breaker" when the other two agencies have ratings similar, but not equal, in scale. SAMSUNG N150 laptop keyboard

In September 2011, Fitch Group announced the sale of Algorithmics (risk analytics software) to IBM for $387 million.[4]The deal closed on October 21, 2011. [5] HP G56 laptop keyboard

North Korea

The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK; Chosŏn'gŭl: 조선민주주의인민공화국; Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk), commonly called North Korea ( listen), is a country in East Asia, in the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital is Pyongyang, the country's largest city by both land area and population. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

The Amnok River and the Tumen River form the international border between North Korea and thePeople's Republic of China. A small section of the Tumen River also lies along the border between North Korea and the Russian Federation, technically following the river's thalweg.[7] The Korean Demilitarized Zone is the boundary between North Korea and South Korea.  DELL 9J.N6782.A01 Laptop Keyboard

The Korean peninsula was governed by the Korean Empire from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, until it was annexed by the Empire of Japan in 1910. After the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II, Japanese rule ceased. The Korean peninsula was divided into two occupied zones in 1945, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

with the northern half of the peninsula occupied by the Soviet Union and the southern half by the United States. A United Nations–supervised election held in 1948 led to the creation of separate Korean governments for the two occupation zones: the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north, HP Pavilion dv6-2155tx Laptop Keyboard

and the Republic of Korea in the south. North Korea and South Korea each claimed sovereignty over the entire Korean peninsula, which led to the start of theKorean War in 1950. An armistice in 1953 committed both to a cease-fire, but the two countries remain officially at war because a formal peace treaty was never signed.[8] Both states were accepted into the United Nations in 1991.[9] DELL XPS M1530 Laptop Keyboard

The country's government follows the Juche ideology of self-reliance, initiated by the country's firstPresident, Kim Il-sung. After his death, Kim Il-sung was declared the country's Eternal President. Juchebecame the official state ideology, replacing Marxism–Leninism, when the country adopted a new constitutionin 1972.[10][11] In 2009, references to Communism (Chosŏn'gŭl: 공산주의) were removed from the country'sconstitution.[12] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

North Korea political parties includes Workers' Party of Korea, Korean Social Democratic Party and theChondoist Chongu Party (also there are some independent deputies). The three political parties participates in the Democratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland led by the Workers' Party of Korea.[13] Electionsare held every five years to elect representatives to city, county, provincial and national "people's assemblies".[14] HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Education in North Korea is universal and free of charge (it is one of the most literate countries in the world, with an average literacy rate of 99%).[15] The country has a national medical service and health insurance system which are offered for free.[15] Housing and food rations traditionally have been heavily subsidized.[15] The means of production are owned by the state through state-run enterprises and collectivized farms.[15] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

North Korean leader Kim Jong-Il adopted Songun, or "military-first" policy in order to strengthen the country and its government.[16] North Korea is the world's most militarized country, with a total of 9,495,000 active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel. Its active duty army of 1.21 million is the 4th largest in the world, after China, the U.S., and India.[17] It is a nuclear-weapons state and has an active space program.[18][19][20] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, North Korea lost a major trading partner and strategic ally. Combined with a series of natural disasters, this led to the North Korean famine, which lasted from 1994 to 1998 and killed an estimated 240,000 to 1,000,000 people.[21][22] TOSHIBA A000014900 Laptop Keyboard

As a result of its isolation it is sometimes known as the "Hermit kingdom",[23] a name once given to its predecessor, the Korean Empire. Although North Korea is officially a socialist republic[24] and elections are held, it has been described by the mass media as a totalitarian and Stalinistdictatorship[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] with an elaborate cult of personality around the Kim family. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Also, the Economist Intelligence Unit, a private business based in the United Kingdom, ranked it as the lowest country in the Democracy Index. Finally, Amnesty International[35][36] and Human Rights Watch[37][38] report of severe restrictions on human rights but the government rejects these claims.[39][40][41] HP G62-229WM Laptop Keyboard

Korean history began with the founding of the Gojoseon Dynasty in 2333 BC by Dangun, according to Korean foundation mythology.[42] Gojoseon expanded until it controlled northern Korean Peninsula and some parts of Manchuria. After many conflicts with the Chinese Han Dynasty, Gojoseon disintegrated, leading to theProto–Three Kingdoms of Korea period. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

This saw the kingdoms of Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and the Samhan confederacy occupying the peninsula along with southern Manchuria. Of the various states, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla grew to control the peninsula as the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla in 676 led to the North South States Period, in which much of the Korean Peninsula was controlled by Silla. HP Probook 4710S Laptop Keyboard

Under the rule of Unified Silla, relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful. However, Silla weakened under internal strife, and eventually was defeated by Emperor Taejo of Goryeo of the Goryeo Dynasty in 935. After a long period of rule, the Mongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened Goryeo. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

Nearly 30 years of war later, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols. After the Mongol Empire collapsed, severe political strife followed and the Goryeo Dynasty was replaced in 1388 by the long-lasting Joseon Dynasty, whose rule over the peninsula would last until 1897. GATEWAY AEMA2TAU015 Laptop Keyboard

The latter years of the Joseon Dynasty were marked by an increasing dependence on China for external affairs and isolation from the outside world. The Joseon Dynasty tried to protect itself against Western imperialism, but was eventually forced to open trade. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the Korean peninsula was governed by the newly established Korean Empire, whose continued isolationist policies earned it the name of the "Hermit Kingdom". After the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, Korea was annexed by the Empire of Japan in 1910, leading to 35 years of military rule. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

After the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II, Japanese rule was brought to an end. The Korean peninsula was divided into two occupied zones in 1945 along the 38th parallel, HP Pavilion dv6-2106ea Laptop Keyboard

 with the northern half of the peninsula occupied by the Soviet Union and the southern half by the United States, in accordance with a prior arrangement between world powers, whereUnited Nations–supervised elections were intended to be held for the entire peninsula shortly after the war. HP Mini 110-3536tu laptop keyboard

In August 1945, the Soviet Army established a Soviet Civil Authority to rule the northern portion of the Korean Peninsula until a domestic regime, friendly to the USSR, could be established.  ASUS X88S laptop keyboard

This became governed by the Provisional People's Committee for North Korea through 1948. After the departure of Soviet forces in 1948, the main agenda in the following years was unification of Korea until the consolidation of the Syngman Rhee regime in the South and a Jeju Uprising/brutal crackdown on Communist sympathizers under his presidency. Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

In 1949, a military intervention into South Korea was considered by Kim Il-sung, but failed to receive support from the Soviet Union, which had played a key role in the establishment of the country.[43] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

The withdrawal of most of the American forces from the South in June dramatically weakened the Southern regime and encouraged Kim Il-sung to rethink an invasion plan against the South.[43] SONY V-0702BIAS1-US laptop keyboard

 The war proposals were rejected several times by Joseph Stalin, but along with the development of Soviet nuclear weapons, Mao Zedong's victory in China, and the Chinese indication that it would send troops and other support to North Korea, Stalin approved the invasion which led to the start of the Korean War in June 1950.[44] HP Mini 210-1199DX laptop keyboard

After Korea was divided by the UN, the two Korean powers both tried to control the whole peninsula under their respective governments. This led to escalating border conflicts on the 38th parallel and attempts to negotiate elections for the whole of Korea.[45] These attempts ended when the military of North Korea invaded the South on June 25, 1950, leading to a full-scale civil war. HP Pavilion dv6-2143ca laptop keyboard

With endorsement from the United Nations, countries allied with the United States intervened on behalf of South Korea. After rapid advances in a South Korean counterattack, North-allied Chinese forces intervened on behalf of North Korea, shifting the balance of the war. TOSHIBA Satellite L550-ST5701 laptop keyboard

Fighting ended on July 27, 1953, with an armistice that approximately restored the original boundaries between North and South Korea. More than one million civilians and soldiers were killed in the war. SONY VAIO VGN-N350N laptop keyboard

Although some have referred to the conflict as a civil war, other important factors were involved.[46] The Korean War was also the first armed confrontation of the Cold War and set the standard for many later conflicts. It created the idea of a proxy war, where the two superpowers would fight in another country, forcing the people in that country to suffer most of the destruction and death involved in a war between such large nations.  HP Mini 110-3135dx Laptop Keyboard

The superpowers avoided descending into an all-out war against one another, as well as the mutual use of nuclear weapons. It also expanded the Cold War, which to that point had mostly been concerned with Europe. A heavily guarded demilitarized zone on the 38th parallel still divides the peninsula, and an anti-Communist and anti-North Korea sentiment remains in South Korea. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Since the Armistice in 1953, relations between the North Korean government and South Korea, the European Union, Canada, the United States, and Japan have remained tense, and hostile incidents occur often.[47][page needed] North and South Korea signed the June 15th North-South Joint Declarationin 2000, IBM Thinkpad R61i Laptop Keyboard

in which they promised to seek peaceful reunification.[48] On October 4, 2007, the leaders of North and South Korea pledged to hold summit talks to officially declare the war over and reaffirmed the principle of mutual non-aggression.[49] On March 13, 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North-South declaration on non-aggression".[50] HP Pavilion dm3-1040EV Laptop Keyboard

Late 20th century

Main article: Korean Demilitarized Zone

The relative peace between the south and the north following the armistice was interrupted by border skirmishes and assassination attempts. The North failed in several assassination attempts on South Korean leaders, most notably in 1968, 1974 and the Rangoon bombing in 1983; HP G56-118CA Laptop Keyboard

tunnels were frequently found under the DMZ and war nearly broke out over the Axe Murder Incident at Panmunjeom in 1976.[51] In 1973, extremely secret, high-level contacts began to be conducted through the offices of the Red Cross, but ended after the Panmunjeom incident with little progress having been made and the idea that the two Koreas would join international organisations separately.[52] DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

North Korea remained closely aligned to China and the Soviet Union until the mid-1960s. Recovery from the war was quick – by 1957 industrial production reached 1949 levels. Until the 1960s, economic growth was higher than in South Korea, and North Korean GDP per capita was equal to that of its southern neighbor as late as 1976.[53][54] The last Chinese troops withdrew from the country in October 1958.[55] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

In the late 1990s, with the South having transitioned to liberal democracy, the success of the Nordpolitik policy, and power in the North having been taken up by Kim Il-sung's son Kim Jong-il, the two nations began to engage publicly for the first time, with the South declaring its Sunshine Policy.[56][57] HP Mini 210-2030ew Laptop Keyboard

In January 2002, U.S. president George W. Bush labeled North Korea part of an "axis of evil" and an "outpost of tyranny". The highest-level contact the government has had with the United States was with U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, who made a visit to Pyongyang in 2000,[58] but the two countries do not have formal diplomatic relations.[59] HP Compaq G50-118NR Laptop Keyboard

By 2006, approximately 37,000 American soldiers remained in South Korea, although by June 2009 this number had fallen to around 30,000.[60][61] Kim Jong-il privately stated his acceptance of U.S. troops on the peninsula, even after a possible reunification.[62] Publicly, North Korea strongly demands the removal of American troops from South Korea.[62] HP Pavilion tx2627cl laptop keyboard

On June 13, 2009, the Associated Press reported that in response to new U.N. sanctions, North Korea declared it would progress with its uranium enrichmentprogram. This marked the first time the DPRK has publicly acknowledged that it is conducting a uranium enrichment program.[63] ACER Extensa 5235 laptop keyboard

In August 2009, former U.S. president Bill Clinton met with Kim Jong-il to secure the release of two American journalists, who had been sentenced for entering the country illegally.[64]Current U.S. President Barack Obama's position towards North Korea has been to resist making deals with North Korea for the sake of defusing tension, a policy known as "strategic patience."[65] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-S5242BN laptop keyboard

On November 23, 2010, North Korea fired about 170 rounds of artillery on Yeonpyeong Island and the surrounding waters near the Yellow Sea border, with some 90 shells landing on the island. The attack resulted in the deaths of two marines and two civilians on the South Korean side, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

and fifteen marines and at least three civilians wounded.[66] South Korean forces fired back 80 shells, although the results remain unclear. North Korean news sources alleged that the North Korean actions, described as "a prompt and powerful physical strike", were in response to provocation from South Korea that had held an artillery exercise in the disputed waters south of the island.[67] SONY AEGD1U00020 laptop keyboard

On the December 17, 2011 the Supreme Leader of North Korea, Kim Jong-il died from a heart attack.[68] His death was reported by the Korean Central News Agencyaround 08:30 local time with the newscaster announcing his youngest son Kim Jong-un as his successor. SONY VAIO VGN-FS415M laptop keyboard

The announcement placed South Korean and United States troops on high alert, with many politicians from the global community stating that Kim's death leaves a great deal of uncertainty in the country's future.[69] North Korea was put into a state of semi-alert, with foreigners put under suspicion and asked to leave.[70]  Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

On January 24, 2013, North Korea announced its intentions to target the United States in its missile and nuclear programs. The statement called the United States, the "sworn enemy of the Korean people".[71] SAMSUNG N150 laptop keyboard

On March 8, 2013, the North Korean government announced that it was withdrawing from all non-aggression pacts with South Korea in response to UN Resolution 2094.[72][73][74] The announcement said it was closing its joint border crossing with South Korea and cutting off the hotline to the South.[72][73][74] HP G56 laptop keyboard

On March 13, 2013, North Korea confirmed it ended the 1953 Armistice and declared North Korea "is not restrained by the North-South declaration on non-aggression.[50]Confirmation of the severing of the hotline between the North and the South—the last remaining communication link between the two countries at that time—was publicly announced on March 27, 2013, SAMSUNG NP-NB30-JP01 laptop keyboard

the same date that the hotline was cut off. According to the Korean Central News Agency, a senior North Korean military official stated: "Under the situation where a war may break out any moment, there is no need to keep up North-South military communications" prior to the cessation of the communication channel.[75][76] HP Mini 110-3102st laptop keyboard

On March 30, 2013, the North Korean government declared it was in 'a state of war' with South Korea. A North Korean statement promised "stern physical actions" against "any provocative act". Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard

The North Korean leader Kim Jong-un declared that rockets were ready to be fired at American bases in the Pacific in response to the US flying two nuclear-capable B2 stealth bombers over the Korean peninsula. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

The United States warned North Korea that the rapidly escalating military confrontation would lead to further isolation, as The Pentagon declared that the US was 'fully capable' of defending itself and its allies against a missile attack.[77] [78] [79] HP Mini 110-3040ss laptop keyboard

North Korea occupies the northern portion of the Korean Peninsula, lying between latitudes 37° and 43°N, and longitudes124° and 131°E. It covers an area of 120,540 square kilometres (46,541 sq mi). North Korea shares land borders with China and Russia to the north, SONY Vaio VGN-FW139E laptop keyboard

 and borders South Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone. To its west are the Yellow Sea andKorea Bay, and to its east lies Japan across the Sea of Japan (East Sea of Korea). The highest point in North Korea is Baekdu Mountain at 2,744 metres (9,003 ft). Acer Aspire 1414WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The longest river is the Amnok River which flows for 790 kilometres (491 mi).[80] The capital and largest city is Pyongyang; other major cities include Kaesong in the south, Sinuiju in the northwest, Wonsan andHamhung in the east and Chongjin in the northeast. Acer Aspire 1415 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

In 2013, internet users were encouraged to participate in a community based event on Google Maps. These users could useGoogle Map Maker along with Cartography and Telemetry skills that eventually led to a virtual map of Pyongyang.[81] In addition, the Google Map of North Korea includes political prison camp locations such as Camp 22.[82] Acer Aspire 1415LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Early European visitors to Korea remarked that the country resembled "a sea in a heavy gale" because of the many successivemountain ranges that crisscross the peninsula.[83] Some 80% of North Korea is composed of mountains and uplands, separated by deep and narrow valleys, Acer Aspire 1640 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

with all of the peninsula's mountains with elevations of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) or more located in North Korea. The coastal plains are wide in the west and discontinuous in the east. A great majority of the population lives in the plains and lowlands. Acer Aspire 1640LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The highest point in North Korea is Baekdu Mountain which is a volcanic mountain near the Chinese border with basalt lavaplateau with elevations between 1,400 and 2,744 metres (4,600 and 9,003 ft) above sea level.[83] The Hamgyong Range, located in the extreme northeastern part of the peninsula, has many high peaks including Gwanmosan at approximately 1,756 m (5,761 ft). Acer Aspire 1640Z Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Other major ranges include the Rangrim Mountains, which are located in the north-central part of North Korea and run in a north-south direction, making communication between the eastern and western parts of the country rather difficult; Acer Aspire 1641LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

and theKangnam Range, which runs along the North Korea–China border. Mount Kumgang, or Diamond Mountain, (approximately 1,638 metres or 5,374 feet) in the Taebaek Range, which extends into South Korea, is famous for its scenic beauty.[83] Acer Aspire 1641LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

For the most part, the plains are small. The most extensive are the Pyongyang and Chaeryong plains, each covering about 500 square kilometres (190 sq mi). Because the mountains on the east coast drop abruptly to the sea, the plains are even smaller there than on the west coast. Unlike neighboring Japan or northern China, North Korea experiences few severe earthquakes. Acer Aspire 1641WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea has a continental climate with four distinct seasons.[84] Long winters bring bitter cold and clear weather interspersed with snow storms as a result of northern and northwestern winds that blow from Siberia. Average snowfall is 37 days during the winter. The weather is likely to be particularly harsh in the northern, mountainous regions. Acer Aspire 1642WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Summer tends to be short, hot, humid, and rainy because of the southern and southeastern monsoon winds that bring moist air from the Pacific Ocean. Typhoons affect the peninsula on an average of at least once every summer.[84] Acer Aspire 1650 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Spring and autumn are transitional seasons marked by mild temperatures and variable winds and bring the most pleasant weather. Natural hazards include late spring droughts which often are followed by severe flooding. There are occasional typhoonsduring the early fall. Acer Aspire 1651NWLCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea's climate is relatively temperate. Most of the country is classified as type Dwa in the Köppen climate classification scheme, with warm summers and cold, dry winters. In summer there is a short rainy season called changma.[85] On August 7, 2007, the most devastating floods in 40 years caused the North Korean government to ask for international help. NGOs, such as the Red Cross, asked people to raise funds because they feared a humanitarian catastrophe.[86] Acer Aspire 1651WLCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea is a self-described Juche (self-reliant) state,[87] described by some observers as a de facto absolute monarchy[88][89][90] or "hereditary dictatorship"[91] with a pronounced cult of personality organized around Kim Il-sung (the founder of North Korea and the country's only president) and his late son, Kim Jong-il. Acer Aspire 1651WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea uses a government system that also utilizes a Departmentalization system of Ministries. There are also those who reject the view that North Korea is a socialist state espousing communism, instead claiming that the North Korean leadership uses communism as a justification for their rule.[92][93] Acer Aspire 1652WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

More recent research based on North Korea’s domestic documents and not propaganda for the international audience, popularized in 2009 byBrian R. Myers and his book The Cleanest Race and later supported by further academics[94][95] even characterizes North Korea as a far-right national-socialist country heavily influenced by Japan of the 1930s.[96][97] Acer Aspire 1654WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Following Kim Il-sung's death in 1994, he was not replaced but instead received the designation of "Eternal President", and was entombed in the vast Kumsusan Palace of the Sun in central Pyongyang.[98] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-150EP Laptop Keyboard

Although the office of the President is ceremonially held by the deceased Kim Il-sung,[99][100][101] the Supreme Leader until his death in December 2011 was Kim Jong-il, who was General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea and Chairman of the National Defence Commission of North Korea. SONY PCG-GR5F/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The legislature of North Korea is the Supreme People's Assembly, currently led by Chairman Kim Yong-nam. The other senior government figure is Premier Choe Yong-rim. Acer Aspire 1412LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The structure of the government is described in the Constitution of North Korea, the latest version of which is from 2009 and officially rejects North Korea's founding ideology of communism.[102] The governing party by law is theDemocratic Front for the Reunification of the Fatherland, Acer Aspire 1412LCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

a coalition of the Workers' Party of Korea and two other smaller parties, the Korean Social Democratic Party and the Chondoist Chongu Party. These parties nominate all candidates for office and hold all seats in the Supreme People's Assembly. They have negligible power, as the leader holds autocratic control over the nation's affairs. Acer Aspire 1412LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

In June 2009, it was reported in South Korean media that intelligence indicated that the country's next leader would be Kim Jong-un, the youngest of Kim Jong-il's three sons.[103] This was confirmed on 19 December 2011, following Kim Jong-il's death.[68][104] Acer Aspire 1412LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

According to Cheong Seong-chang of Sejong Institute, speaking on June 25, 2012, there is some possibility that the new leader Kim Jong-un, who has greater visible interest in the welfare of his people and engages in greater interaction with them than his father did, will consider economic reforms and regularization of international relations.[105] Acer Aspire 1412WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Political expression is tightly controlled in North Korea. Supporters of the government who deviate from the government line are subject to reeducation in sections of labor camps set aside for that purpose. Those who are successfully rehabilitated may reassume responsible government positions on their release.[106] Troublesome political dissidents, Acer Aspire 1413 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

 factionalists and class enemies, who are considered irredeemable are incarcerated together with any close family members or children born in the camp in "Total Control Zones" for life at hard labor. Labor camps in North Korea are actually areas of the country set aside for that purpose, Acer Aspire 1413LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

 Camp 22(also known as Kwan-li-so No.22 Haengyong) is 31 miles by 25 miles with a population of about 50,000. Those who attempt to escape or violate camp rules are executed or sent to a separate prison within the camp. The labor camps are reserved for political prisoners; common criminals are incarcerated in a separate system.[107] There are 6 such areas in the northern and northeastern portion of North Korea.[108] Acer Aspire 1413LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea has long maintained close relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and Russia. The fall of communismin eastern Europe in 1989, and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, resulted in a devastating drop in aid to North Korea from Russia, although China continues to provide substantial assistance. North Korea continues to have strong ties with its socialist southeast Asian allies in Vietnam and Laos, as well as with Cambodia.[109] Acer Aspire 1413LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea has started installing aconcrete and barbed wire fence on its northern border, in response to China's wish to curb an overflow of illegal refugees from North Korea. Previously, the border between China and North Korea had only been lightly patrolled.[110] Acer Aspire 1413WLMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

As a result of the North Korean nuclear weapons program, the six-party talks were established to find a peaceful solution to the growing tension between the two Korean governments, the Russian Federation, the People's Republic of China, Japan, and the United States. Acer Aspire 1414 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

On July 17, 2007, United Nations inspectors verified the shutdown of five North Korean nuclear facilities, according to the February 2007 agreement.[111] On October 4, 2007, South Korean President Roh Moo-Hyun and North Korean leader Kim Jong-il signed an 8-point peace agreement, on issues of permanent peace, high-level talks, economic cooperation, renewal of train, highway and air travel, and a joint Olympic cheering squad.[49] Acer Aspire 1414L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The United States and South Korea previously designated the North as a state sponsor of terrorism.[112] The 1983 bombing that killed members of the South Korean government and the destruction of a South Korean airliner have been attributed to North Korea.[113] Acer Aspire 1414LC Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea has also admitted responsibility for the kidnapping of 13 Japanese citizens in the 1970s and 1980s, five of whom were returned to Japan in 2002.[114] On October 11, 2008, the United States removed North Korea from its list of states that sponsor terrorism.[115] Acer Aspire 1414LM Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

In 2009, relationships between North and South Korea increased in intensity; North Korea had been reported to have deployed missiles,[116] ended its former agreements with South Korea,[117] and threatened South Korea and the United States not to interfere with a satellite launch it had planned.[118] Acer Aspire 1414LMi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North and South Korea are still technically at war (having never signed a peace treaty after the Korean War) and share the world’s most heavily fortified border.[119] On May 27, 2009, North Korean media declared that the Korean Armistice was no longer valid due to the South Korean government's pledge to "definitely join" theProliferation Security Initiative.[citation needed] Acer Aspire 1414WLCi Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

To further complicate and intensify strain between the two nations, the sinking of the South Korean warshipCheonan in March 2010, killing 46 seamen, is as of May 20, 2010 claimed by a multi-national research team[120] to have been caused by a North Korean torpedo, which the North denies. SONY PCG-GR300K Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

South Korea agreed with the findings from the research group and President Lee Myung-bak declared in May 2010 that Seoul would cut all trade with North Korea as part of measures primarily aimed at striking back at North Korea diplomatically and financially.[121] As a result of this, SONY PCG-GR315MP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea severed all ties, completely abrogated the previous pact of non aggression and expelled all South Koreans from a joint industrial zone in Kaesong.[122] On November 23, 2010, North Korea attacked Yeonpyeong Island, further deteriorating the diplomatic relations with the South and other nations.[123] SONY PCG-GR37 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Most of the foreign embassies connecting with diplomatic ties to North Korea are located in Beijing (Capital of China) rather than in Pyongyang (Capital of DPRK).[124] SONY PCG-GR370 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The North Korean government claims all citizens are equal and denies any discrimination on the basis of family background.[125] According to North Korean documents and refugee testimonies,[126] however, all North Koreans are sorted into groups according to their Songbun, an ascribed status system. SONY PCG-GR370K Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Based on their own behavior and the political, social, and economic background of their family for three generations as well as behavior by relatives within that range, Songbun is allegedly used to determine whether an individual is trusted with responsibility, given opportunities,[127] or even receives adequate food.[126][128] SONY PCG-GR370P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Songbun allegedly affects access to educational and employment opportunities and particularly whether a person is eligible to join North Korea's ruling party.[127] There are 3 main classifications and about 50 sub-classifications. According to Kim Il-sung, speaking in 1958, the loyal "core class" constituted 25% of the North Korean population, the "wavering class" 55%, SONY PCG-GR390 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

and the "hostile class" 20%.[126] The highest status is accorded to individuals descended from those who participated with Kim Il-sung in the resistance against Japanese occupation during and before World War II and to those who were factory workers, laborers or peasants as of 1950.[129] SONY PCG-GR390K Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

While some analysts believe private commerce recently changed the Songbun system to some extent,[130] most North Korean refugees say it remains a commanding presence in everyday life.[126] SONY PCG-GR390P Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Main article: Human rights in North Korea

Many international human rights organizations accuse North Korea of having one of the worst human rights records of any nation.[131]Amnesty International reports of severe restrictions on the freedom of association, expression and movement, arbitrary detention, torture and other ill-treatment resulting in death, and executions.[35] The organization demands the closure of prison camps, SONY PCG-GR3BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

where 200,000 political prisoners and their families exist in “the most inhuman conditions imaginable”.[36] North Koreans have been referred to as "some of the world's most brutalized people" by Human Rights Watch, due to the severe restrictions placed on theirpolitical and economic freedoms.[37][38] SONY PCG-GR3F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

In the 1990s just listening to South Korean radio could result in capital punishment[citation needed]. Some were also allegedly sent to prison camps for singing a South Korean song.[132]

law enforcement and allegedly maintain various prison camps. North Korean defectors have testified to the existence of prisons and concentration camps[133] including "total control zones", (SONY PCG-GR3F/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Kwan-li-so : 관리소), where political undesirables are imprisoned for life at hard labor and are subjected to reported torture, starvation, rape, murder, medical experimentation, forced labour, and forced abortions.[134] According to Amnesty International, based on satellite images and anonymous testimonies, around 200,000 prisoners (about 0.85% of the population) are held in six large political prison camps,[135] SONY PCG-GR3N Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

being in operation since the 1950s. They are forced to work in conditions approaching slavery and are frequently subjected to torture and other cruel, inhumane, and degrading treatment.[136] Camp 14 in Kaechon,[137] Camp 15 in Yodok[138] and Camp 18 in Bukchang[139] are described in detailed testimonies.[134] People suspected not to be loyal to the regime, e.g. SONY PCG-GR3N/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

because they are Christians or because they criticized the leadership,[135] are deported to these camps without trial,[140] often with their whole family and mostly without any chance to be released.[141] The International Coalition to Stop Crimes Against Humanity in North Korea (ICNK) estimates that over 10,000 people die in North Korean prison camps every year.[142] SONY PCG-GR5BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

According to R.J. Rummel, forced labor, executions, and concentration camps were responsible for over one million deaths in North Korea from 1948 to 1987;[143] others have estimated 400,000 deaths in concentration camps alone.[144] SONY PCG-GR5E Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The North Korean government exercises control over many aspects of the nation's culture, and this control is used to perpetuate a cult of personalitysurrounding Kim Il-sung,[145] and, to a lesser extent, Kim Jong-il.[146] While visiting North Korea in 1979, journalist Bradley Martin noted that nearly all music, SONY PCG-GR5E/BP Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

art, and sculpture that he observed glorified "Great Leader" Kim Il-sung, whose personality cult was then being extended to his son, "Dear Leader" Kim Jong-il.[147] Bradley Martin also reported that there is even widespread belief that Kim Il-sung "created the world", and Kim Jong-il could "control the weather".[147] Such reports, however, are contested by North Korea researcher Brian R. Myers: "SONY PCG-GR5F Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

divine powers have never been attributed to either of the two Kims. In fact, the propaganda apparatus in Pyongyang has generally been careful not to make claims that run directly counter to citizens’ experience or common sense."[148] He further explains that the state propaganda painted Kim Jong-il as someone whose expertise lay in military matters and that the famine of the 1990s was partially caused by natural disasters out of Kim Jong-il's control.[149] Hp Envy 13-1099EO Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The song "No Motherland Without You" (당신이없으면 조국도없다), sung by the North Korean Army Choir, was created especially for Kim Jong-il and is one of the most popular tunes in the country. Kim Il-sung is still officially revered as the nation's "Eternal President". Several landmarks in North Korea are named for Kim Il-sung, including Kim Il-sung University, Hp Envy 13-1099XL Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Kim Il-sung Stadium, and Kim Il-sung Square. Defectors have been quoted as saying that North Korean schools deify both father and son.[150] Kim Il-sung rejected the notion that he had created a cult around himself, and accused those who suggested this of "factionalism".[147Hp Envy 13-1100 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

] Following the death of Kim Il-Sung, North Koreans were prostrating and weeping to a bronze statue of him in an organized event;[151] similar scenes were broadcast by state television following the death of Kim Jong-il. Hp Envy 13-1940EZ Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Critics maintain this Kim Jong-il personality cult was inherited from his father, Kim Il-sung. Kim Jong-il was often the center of attention throughout ordinary life in the DPRK. His birthday is one of the most important public holidays in the country. On his 60th birthday (based on his official date of birth), mass celebrations occurred throughout the country.[152] Hp Envy 13t-1000 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Kim Jong-il's personality cult, although significant, was not as extensive as his father's. One point of view is that Kim Jong-il's cult of personality was solely out of respect for Kim Il-sung or out of fear of punishment for failure to pay homage.[23] Media and government sources from outside of North Korea generally support this view,[153][154][155][156][157] while North Korean government sources say that it is genuine hero worship.[158] Hp Envy 14 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

B.R. Myers also argues that the worship is real and not unlike worship of Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany.[159] In a more recent event – on June 11, 2012 – a 14-year-old North Korean schoolgirl drowned while attempting to rescue portraits of Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il from a Hp Envy 14-1000wx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea's policy is to seek reunification without what it sees as outside interference, through a federal structure retaining each side's leadership and systems. In 2000, both North and South Korea signed the June 15th North–South Joint Declaration in which both sides made promises to seek out a peaceful reunification.[161] Hp Envy 14-1000xx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The Democratic Federal Republic of Korea is a proposed state first mentioned by then North Korean president Kim Il-sung on October 10, 1980, proposing a federation between North and South Korea in which the respective political systems would initially remain.[162] Hp Envy 14-1001tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The Ministry of the People's Armed Forces maintains the Korean People's Army (KPA), which serves as the military force of the country. The Korean People's Army (KPA) is the name for the collective armed personnel of the North Korean military. It has five branches: Ground Force, Naval Force, Hp Envy 14-1002tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

 Air Force, Special Operations Force, and Rocket Force. According to the U.S. Department of State, North Korea has the fourth-largest army in the world, at an estimated 1.21 million armed personnel, with about 20% of men aged 17–54 in the regular armed forces.[17] North Korea has the highest percentage of military personnel per capita of any nation in the world, Hp Envy 14-1003tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

with approximately one enlisted soldier for every 25 citizens.[18][163] North Korea also has a Defense Industry that is responsible for engineering military equipment. In 1994, North Korea received 10 Golf II Class Submarines from Russia.[164] Hp Envy 14-1004tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Military strategy is designed for insertion of agents and sabotage behind enemy lines in wartime,[17] with much of the KPA's forces deployed along the heavily fortified Korean Demilitarized Zone. The Korean People's Army operates a very large amount of equipment, including 4,060 tanks, Hp Envy 14-1005tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

2,500 APCs, 17,900 artillery pieces, 11,000 air defense guns and some 10,000 MANPADS and anti-tank guided missiles[165] in the Ground force; at least 915 vessels in the Navy and 1,748 aircraft in the Air Force,[166] of which 478 are fighters and 180 are bombers.[167] North Korea also has the largest special forces in the world, as well as the largest submarine fleet.[168] Hp Envy 14-1006tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The equipment is a mixture of World War II vintage vehicles and small arms, widely proliferated Cold War technology, and more modern Soviet or locally produced weapons. In line with its asymmetric warfare strategy, North Korea employs a wide range of unconventional techniques and equipment, such as GPS jammers,[169] stealth paint,[170] midget submarines and human torpedoes,[171] Hp Envy 14-1007tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

a vast array of chemical and biological weapons,[172] and blinding laser weapons.[173] According to official North Korean media, military expenditures for 2010 amount to 15.8% of the state budget.[174] Hp Envy 14-1008tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea has active nuclear and ballistic missile weapons programs and has been subject to United Nations Security Council resolutions 1695 of July 2006,1718 of October 2006, and 1874 of June 2009, for carrying out both missile and nuclear tests. North Korea probably has fissile material for up to nine nuclear weapons,[175] Hp Envy 14-1009tx Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

and has the capability to deploy nuclear warheads on intermediate-range ballistic missiles.[176] The launch of a North Korean satellite in December 2012 was seen as a weapons development step by South Korea and its allies[177] and condemned by the UN Security Council.[178] SONY PCG-GR300 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

In North Korea, weapons are manufactured in roughly 180 underground defense industry plants in Jagang-do. The plants are responsible for producing; 200,000Kalashnikov rifles annually, 3,000 heavy guns, 200 battle tanks, 400 armored cars and amphibious crafts in addition to several other weapons.[179] Hp Envy 13-1004TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

In the 1990s, North Korea sold medium-sized nuclear capable missiles to Pakistan in a deal facilitated by China.[180] In 2005, North Korea admitted to having nuclear weapons but vowed to close their nuclear programs.[181][182] The promise of a reduction in nuclear programs has also been reinforced at various Inter-Korean Summit meetings between North and South Korea since the year 2000. Hp Envy 13-1005TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

However, nuclear plants in North Korea have caused international concern since the 1950s as they are capable of assisting in the development of nuclear arms. International issues involving North Korea's refusal to discontinue nuclear projects have prevented Russia based Gazprom from developing a $2.5 billion pipeline to South Korea through Pyongyang. The revenue generated from Gazprom is intended to provide North Korea with $100 million per year in transit fees.[183][184] Hp Envy 13-1006TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The Japan Meteorological Agency has been able to use technological advances in seismology to detect various nuclear weapons tests.[185]

The economy of North Korea operates under the Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and issues the North Korean won. North Korea has an industrialised, near-autarkic, highly centralized command economy. Hp Envy 13-1007EV Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea is one of only two states (along with Cuba) with an almost entirely government-planned, state-owned economy. The Central Planning Committee prepares, supervises and implements economic plans, while a General Bureau of Provincial Industry in each region is responsible for the management of local manufacturing facilities, production, resource allocation and sales.[186] Hp Envy 13-1007LA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

North Korea's isolation policy means that international trade is highly restricted. North Korea passed a law in 1984 allowing for foreign investment through joint ventures,[189] but failed to attract any significant investment. In 1991, it established the Rason Economic Special Zone,[190] Hp Envy 13-1007TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

in an attempt to attract foreign investment from China and Russia. Chinese and Russian companies have purchased rights to use the ports at Rason. Chinese investors are renovating a road from Rason to China,[191] and Russian railway workers are renovating the railway from Rason to Russia, from where it continues onto the Trans-Siberian Railway.[192] Hp Envy 13-1008TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Until 1998, the United Nations published HDI and GDP per capita figures for North Korea, which stood at a medium level of human development at 0.766 (ranked 75th) and a GDP per capita of $4,058.[193] The average salary was about $47 per month in 2004.[194] The average official salary in 2011 was equivalent to $2 per month while the actual monthly income seems to be around $15 because most North Koreans earn money in illegal small businesses: Hp Envy 13-1010ER Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

trade, subsistence farming, and handicrafts. The illegal economy is dominated by women because men have to attend their places of official work even though most of the factories are non-functioning.[195] It is estimated that in the early 2000s, the average North Korean family drew some 80% of its income from small businesses that are legal in market economies but illegal in North Korea.[196] Hp Envy 13-1015ER Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Despite substantial economic problems, quality of life was improving and wages were rising steadily in 2007.[197] Small-scale private markets, known as janmadang, exist throughout the country and provide the population with imported food and commodities ranging from cosmetics to motorcycles in exchange for money.[198][199] Hp Envy 13-1030CA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

In 2009, the government carried out a currency redenomination with the aim to curb free market activity across the country, but the attempt failed, causing inflation rates to skyrocket, and eventually led to the lifting of the ban on free market trade.[200] Hp Envy 13-1030NR Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Food rations, housing, healthcare, and education are offered from the state for free,[201] and the payment of taxes has been abolished since April 1, 1974.[202] In order to increase productivity from agriculture and industry, since the 1960s the North Korean government has introduced a number of management systems such as the Taean work system.[203] In the 21st century, Hp Envy 13-1050EA Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

following a recovery in 1999, North Korea's GDP growth was slow but steady until 2005. Between 2006 and 2011 the majority of years have had negative growth.[204] In 2012 the Bank of Korea published the following estimates of North Korea's GDP growth:[205][206] Hp Envy 13-1050EF Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

According to estimates from 2002, the dominant sector in the North Korean economy is industry (43.1%), followed by services(33.6%) and agriculture (23.3%). In 2004, it was estimated that agriculture employed 37% of the workforce while industry and services employed the remaining 63%.[59] Major industries include military products, machine building, electric power, Hp Envy 13-1050EG Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

chemicals, mining, metallurgy, textiles, food processing and tourism. Iron ore and coal production are among the few sectors where North Korea performs significantly better than its southern neighbour – the DPRK produces about 10 times larger amounts of each resource.[207] Hp Envy 13-1050ES Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

Rice yields are about 2.8 tonnes per hectare, about half that in most countries, with soil degradation, lack of fertilisers, and limited mechanisation blamed.[208] In 2005, North Korea was ranked by the FAO as an estimated 10th in the production of fresh fruit[209] and as an estimated 19th in the production of apples.[210] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

It has substantial natural resources and is the world's 18th largest producer of iron and zinc, having the 22nd largest coal reserves in the world. It is also the 15th largest fluorite producer and 12th largest producer of copper and salt in Asia. Other major natural resources in production include lead, tungsten, graphite, magnesite, gold, pyrites, fluorspar, and hydropower.[59] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In 1991, North Korea started experimenting with private capitalism in the Rajin-Sonbong Economic Special Zone, and in 2002 also set up the Kaesong Industrial Region.[211] A small number of other areas have been designated as Special Administrative Regions. China and South Korea are the biggest trade partners of North Korea, HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

with trade with China increasing 15% to US$1.6 billion in 2005, and trade with South Korea increasing 50% to over 1 billion for the first time in 2005.[212] China is North Korea's closest economic partner, accounting for 73% of North Korea's foreign trade.[213] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard

In 2000, the Centre for the Study of the Capitalist System was established.[214] Increasingly more foreign-invested joint ventures have been set up since 2002.[215] The Pyongyang Business School was established by the Swiss government to help teach students business management.[216] ACER Acer Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

A small number of capitalistic elements are gradually spreading from the trial area, including a number of advertising billboards along certain highways. Recent visitors have reported that the number of open-air farmers' markets has increased in Kaesong andPyongyang, as well as along the China-North Korea border, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

bypassing the food rationing system. In addition to food aid, China reportedly provides an estimated 80 to 90 percent of North Korea's oil imports at "friendly prices" that are sharply lower than the world market price.[217] DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

North Korea also has a cartoon animation industry, sub-contracting work from South Korean animation studios.[218]

In 2000, Taiwan began exporting nuclear waste to North Korea for disposal.[219]

European investors have worked alongside North Korea to develop freelance computer programming employment opportunities. The company, Nosotek's homepage, nosotek.com, faced a website defacement in 2013.[220] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

In January 2013, North Korea also purchased 16,000 video cameras from China in order to conduct mass surveillance on citizens.[221]

Tourism in North Korea is organized by the state-owned Korea International Travel Company. All tourists/visitors are constantly accompanied by one or two guides, who usually speak the tourist's native language. While tourism has increased over the last few years, tourists from Western countries remain few. TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

Most visitors come from China, Russia, and Japan. For citizens of South Korea, it is almost impossible to get a visa to North Korea; they can get entry permits to special tourist areas designated for South Koreans, such as Kaesong. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

United States citizens were also subject to visa restrictions, allowed to visit only during the yearly Arirang Festival; these restrictions were lifted in January 2010. Fewer than 2,500 United States citizens have visited North Korea since 1953.[223] HP Mini 110-3131se Laptop Keyboard

In the area of Mount Kumgang, the company Hyundai established and operates a special tourist area. Travel to this area is possible for South Koreans and United States citizens, but only in organized groups from South Korea. A special administrative region, the Mount Kumgang Tourist Region, exists for this purpose. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

SAMSUNG N150 Laptop Keyboard

Trips to the region were suspended after a South Korean woman who wandered into a controlled military zone was shot dead by border guards in late 2008.[224] When tours had not resumed by May 2010, North Korea announced that it would seize South Korean real estate assets in the region.[225] Hp Envy 13-1000 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan  

There are hotels throughout the country, the largest currently operating being the Yanggakdo International Hotel.[226]

In the 1990s North Korea faced significant economic disruptions, including a series of natural disasters, economic mismanagement and serious resource shortages after the collapse of the Eastern Bloc. Hp Envy 13-1001TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

These resulted in a shortfall of staple grain output of more than 1 million tonnes from what the country needs to meet internationally accepted minimum dietary requirements.[227] Hp Envy 13-1002TX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

The North Korean famine known as the "Arduous March" resulted in the deaths of between 300,000 and 800,000 North Koreans per year during the three-year famine, peaking in 1997.[228] The deaths were most likely caused by famine-related illnesses such aspneumonia, tuberculosis, and diarrhea rather than starvation.[228] Hp Envy 13-1003XX Laptop CPU Cooling Fan 

In 2006, Amnesty International reported that a national nutrition survey conducted by the North Korean government, the World Food Programme, and UNICEF found that 7% of children were severely malnourished; 37% were chronically malnourished; 23.4% were underweight; TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

and one in three mothers was malnourished and anaemic as the result of the lingering effect of the famine. The inflation caused by some of the 2002 economic reforms, including the Songun or "Military-first" policy, was cited for creating the increased price of basic foods.[229] DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

The history of Japanese assistance to North Korea has been marked with challenges; from a large pro-Pyongyang community of Koreans in Japan to public outrage over the 1998 North Korean missile launch and revelations regarding the abduction of Japanese citizens.[230] In June 1995, an agreement was reached that the two countries would act jointly.[230] South Korea would provide 150,000 tonnes of grain in unmarked bags, DELL NSK-DN01D Laptop Keyboard

and Japan would provide 150,000 tonnes gratis and another 150,000 tonnes on concessional terms.[230] In October 1995 and January 1996, North Korea again approached Japan for assistance. On these two occasions, both of which came at crucial moments in the evolution of the famine, opposition from both South Korea and domestic political sources quashed the deals.[230] SONY Vaio SONY PCG-K25 Laptop Keyboard

Beginning in 1997, the U.S. began shipping food aid to North Korea through the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) to combat the famine. Shipments peaked in 1999 at nearly 700,000 tonnes making the U.S. the largest foreign aid donor to the country at the time[231]. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Under the Bush Administration, aid was drastically reduced year after year from 350,000 tonnes in 2001 to 40,000 in 2004.[232] The Bush Administration took criticism for using "food as a weapon" during talks over the North's nuclear weapons program, but insisted the U.S. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Agency for International Development (USAID) criteria were the same for all countries and the situation in North Korea had "improved significantly since its collapse in the mid-1990s." Agricultural production had increased from about 2.7 million tonnes in 1997 to 4.2 million tonnes in 2004.[233] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

In 2013, there were reports of famine returning to parts of North Korea and driving some to cannibalism, with the claims that one man dug up his grandchild's corpse to eat and another boiled his child and ate the flesh.[234] Another man was allegedly executed after murdering his two children for food.[234] However, theWorld Food Program reported malnutrition and food shortages, but not famine.[235] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

The Ministry of People's Security maintains all law enforcement activities at the local level, which includes police and other initiatives. There is also aState Security Department that operates in a similar way to an "Office of the Interior" located in other countries. FUJITSU Lifebook T4220 Laptop Keyboard

North Korean media are under some of the strictest government control in the world. The North Korean constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press, but the government prohibits the exercise of these rights in practice. In its 2013 report, Reporters without Borders ranked freedom of the press in North Korea as 177th out of 178, above only that of Eritrea.[236][237] HP Pavilion dv5-1111ea Laptop Keyboard

 Only news that favors the regime is permitted, while news that covers the economic and political problems in the country, and foreign criticism of the government, are not allowed.[238] The media upholds the personality cult of Kim Jong-un, regularly reporting on his daily activities. The main news provider to media in the DPRK is the Korean Central News Agency. ACER TravelMate 3002WTMi Laptop Keyboard

North Korea has 12 principal newspapers and 20 major periodicals, all of varying periodicity and all published in Pyongyang.[239] Newspapers include the Rodong Sinmun, Joson Inmingun, Minju Choson, and Rodongja Sinmum. No private press is known to exist.[240] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

In January 2012, the Associated Press opened a bureau in Pyongyang for full news coverage within North Korea.[241][242]

A study commissioned by the U. S. State Department shows that, despite extremely strict regulations and draconian penalties, North Koreans, particularly elite elements, have increasing access to news and other media outside the state-controlled media authorized by the government.[243] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

While access to the Internet is tightly controlled, listening to the radio and viewing DVDs is increasing, and receiving television broadcasts from neighbouring states is also possible in border areas.[243][244] HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard

Uriminzokkiri is a Korean news website that frequently posts propaganda including the United States attack video published in 2013.[245] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

It has been reported that North Korea uses "radio jamming" techniques in order to prevent access to non-nationalist broadcasts. However, a group by the name ofFree North Korea Radio conducts numerous activities that focus on providing a free radio station to North Koreans. SONY KFRMBA221A Laptop Keyboard

The broadcasts often include instructions on methods to leave the country and their faction has contact with underground reporters within North Korea. The group primarily consists of numerous North Korean refugees and defectors.[246][247] HP AELX9U00210 Laptop Keyboard

In North Korea, the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications maintains the phone systems within the country and oversees the Postal Service. North Korea has an adequate telephone system, SONY Vaio SONY PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

with 1.18 million fixed lines available in 2008.[248] However, most phones are only installed for senior government officials. Someone wanting a phone installed must fill out a form indicating their rank, why he wants a phone, and how he will pay for it.[249] The number of mobile phones in Pyongyang rose from 3,000 in 2002 to approximately 20,000 in 2004.[250] DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard

North Korea has a 3G network for cell phones that provides service to over 1 million subscribers as of February 2012. The service is provided by Koryolink, a venture between the North Korean government and Egypt based Orascom Telecom Holding which is owned by Naguib Sawiris. In May 2010, more than 120,000 North Koreans owned mobile phones;[251] HP Pavilion tx2510us Laptop Keyboard

 this number had increased to 301,000 by September 2010,[252] 660,000 by August 2011,[253] and 900,000 by December 2011.[254]Restrictions have included a ban on cell phones from 2004-2008 and the removal of Internet access from individual phones.[255][256] HP Pavilion dv3-2106tu Laptop Keyboard

According to a report, there are an estimated 1.5 million mobile phone users in North Korea in 2013.[257] From 1 March 2013, Koryolink will authorize full internet access on mobile phones for foreign nationals visiting North Korea. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

North Korea's first Internet café opened in 2002 as a joint venture with a South Korean Internet company, Hoonnet. The former CEO of Hoonnet was Kim Beom-hoon.[258] Ordinary North Koreans do not have access to the global Internet network, but are provided with a nationwide, TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7305 Laptop Keyboard

public-use Intranet service calledKwangmyong, which features domestic news, an e-mail service, and censored information from foreign websites (mostly scientific).[259] The computers primarily useRed Star OS as an operating system.[256] DELL V110546AS1 Laptop Keyboard

Two of the few ways to enter North Korea are over the Sino-Korea Friendship Bridge or via Panmunjeom, the former crossing theAmnok River and the latter crossing the Demilitarized Zone. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

On October 13, 2011 a train from the Russian border settlement of Khasan made an inaugural run to Rajin in North Korea. The 54 kilometer newly repaired link of the Trans-Korean Main Line was the first step in an effort to rebuild the Trans-Korean rail and integrate it into the Trans-Siberian railroad.[260] HP Hp Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Cars are relatively rare, but as of 2008 some 70% of households used bicycles, which also play an increasingly important role in small-scale private trade.[261] Very few cars and light trucks are made in a joint-venture between Pyeonghwa Motors of South Korea, and the North Korean Ryonbong General Corp at a facility in Nampo North Korea.[262] Another local producer of vehicles is Sungri Motor Plant, which manufactures civilian vehicles and heavy trucks. FUJITSU Siemens M1010 Laptop Keyboard

There is a mix of locally built and imported trolleybuses and trams in urban centers in North Korea. Earlier fleets were obtained in Europe and China, but the trade embargo has forced North Korea to build their own vehicles.[citation needed] ASUS X53S Laptop Keyboard

Choson Cul Minzuzui Inmingonghoagug is the only rail operator in North Korea. It has a network of 5,200 km (3,200 mi) of track with 4,500 km (2,800 mi) in standard gauge.[263] There is a small narrow gauge railway in operation in Haeju peninsula.[263] The railway fleet consists of a mix of electric and steam locomotives. ACER Acer Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

Cars are mostly made in North Korea using Soviet and Chinese designs. There are some locomotives from Imperial Japan, the United States, and Europe remaining in use. Second-hand Chinese locomotives (early DF4Bs, BJ Hydraulics, etc.) have also been spotted in active service. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

People traveling from the capital Pyongyang to other regions in North Korea typically travel by rail. However, in order to travel out of Pyongyang, people need an official travel certificate, ID, and a purchased ticket in advance. Due to lack of maintenance on the road infrastructure and vehicles, the travel time by rail is increasing. It has been reported that the 120 mile (193 km) HP Hp Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Water transport on the major rivers and along the coasts plays a growing role in freight and passenger traffic. Except for the Yalu and Taedong rivers, most of the inland waterways, totaling 2,253 kilometres (1,400 mi), are navigable only by small boats. Coastal traffic is heaviest on the eastern seaboard, whose deeper waters can accommodate larger vessels. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

The major ports are Nampho on the west coast and Rajin, Chongjin, Wonsan, and Hamhung on the east coast. The country's harbor loading capacity in the 1990s was estimated at almost 35 million tons[clarification needed] a year.[265] ACER Acer Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

In the early 1990s, North Korea possessed an ocean-going merchant fleet, largely domestically produced, of 68 ships (of at least 1,000 GRT), totaling 465,801 gross register tons (GRT)/709,442 metric tons deadweight (DWT), which includes 58 cargo ships and 2 tankers. There is a continuing investment in upgrading and expanding port facilities, developing transportation—particularly on the Taedong River—and increasing the share of international cargo by domestic vessels.[266] Lenovo Thinkpad X220T laptop keyboard

There are several North Korean Airports, although international air connections are limited. There are regularly scheduled flights from the Pyongyang Sunan International Airport – 24 kilometres (15 mi) north of Pyongyang – to Moscow, Khabarovsk, Vladivostok, Bangkok, Beijing, Dalian, Kuala Lumpur, Shanghai, HP Mini 110-3004tu laptop keyboard

Shenyang along with seasonal services to Singapore and charter flights from Pyongyang to numerous Asian and European destinations including Tokyo and Nagoya. Regular charters to existing scheduled services are operated as per demand. An agreement to initiate a service between Pyongyang and Tokyo was signed in 1990. Internal flights are available between Pyongyang, Hamhung, Haeju, Kaesong,Kanggye, Kilju, Nampho, Sinuiju, Samjiyon, Wonsan, and Chongjin.[267] COMPAQ Presario CQ50-210US laptop keyboard

All civil aircraft are operated by Air Koryo: 38 aircraft in 2010, which were purchased from the Soviet Union and Russia. From 1976 to 1978, four Tu-154 jets were added to the seven propeller-driven An-24s and two Ilyushin Il-18s; afterwards adding 4 long-range Ilyushin Il-62M, three Ilyushin Il-76MD large cargo aircraft. In 2008, a long range Tupolev Tu-204-300 was purchased along with, in 2010, a larger version the Tupolev Tu-204-100B.[265] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

North Korea's population of roughly 24 million is one of the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world, with very small numbers of Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, South Korean, and European expatriate minorities. SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard

According to the CIA World Factbook, North Korea's life expectancy was 63.8 years in 2009, a figure roughly equivalent to that of Pakistan and Burma and slightly lower than Russia.[268] Infant mortality stood at a high level of 51.3, which is 2.5 times higher than that of China, 5 times that of Russia, and 12 times that of South Korea.[269] SONY VAIO VGN-FS940 laptop keyboard

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