Portugal


Also in the early 1960s, independence movements in the Portuguese overseas provinces of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea in Africa, resulted in the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974).

Throughout the colonial war period Portugal had to deal with increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by most of the international community. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

However, the authoritarian and conservative Estado Novo regime, firstly installed and governed by António de Oliveira Salazar and from 1968 onwards led by Marcelo Caetano, tried to preserve a vast centuries-long intercontinental empire with a total area of 2,168,071 km2.[31] TOSHIBA Satellite P10 Series laptop keyboard

The Portuguese government and army successfully resisted the decolonization of its overseas territories until April 1974, when a bloodless left-wing military coup in Lisbon, known as the Carnation Revolution, led the way for the independence of the overseas territories in Africa and Asia, as well as for the restoration of democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC (Processo Revolucionário Em Curso).  HP Mini 210-1073TU laptop keyboard

This period was characterized by social turmoil and power disputes between left- and right-wing political forces. The retreat from the overseas territories and the acceptance of its independence terms by Portuguese head representatives for overseas negotiations, which would create independent states in 1975, prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique).[32][33] SONY Vaio VGN-AW290J laptop keyboard

Over one million Portuguese refugees fled the former Portuguese provinces. Mário Soares and António de Almeida Santos were charged with organising the independence of Portugal's overseas territories. By 1975, all the Portuguese African territories were independent and Portugal held its first democratic elections in 50 years. SONY Vaio PCG-K45 laptop keyboard

The country continued to be governed by a Junta de Salvação Nacional until the Portuguese legislative election of 1976. It was won by the Portuguese Socialist Party (PS) and Mário Soares, its leader, became Prime Minister of the 1st Constitutional Government on 23 July. Mário Soares would be Prime Minister from 1976 to 1978 and again from 1983 to 1985. ACER TravelMate 6292 laptop keyboard

In this capacity Soares tried to resume the economic growth and development record that had been achieved before the Carnation Revolution, during the last decade of the previous regime. He initiated the process of accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) by starting accession negotiations as early as 1977. HP Pavilion dv6-2019ax laptop keyboard

The country bounced between socialism and adherence to the neoliberal model. Land reform and nationalizations were enforced; the Portuguese Constitution (approved in 1976) was rewritten in order to accommodate socialist and communist principles. Until the constitutional revisions of 1982 and 1989, ACER Aspire 7745G Laptop Keyboard

the constitution was a highly charged ideological document with numerous references to socialism, the rights of workers, and the desirability of a socialist economy. Portugal's economic situation after its transition to democracy, obliged the government to pursue International Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilization programs in 1977–78 and 1983–85. HP AEUT3U00020 Laptop Keyboard

In 1986, Portugal joined the European Economic Community (EEC) that later became the European Union (EU). In the following years Portugal's economy progressed considerably as a result of EEC/EU structural and cohesion fundsand Portuguese companies' easier access to foreign markets.  DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Portugal's last overseas territory, Macau, was peacefully handed over to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1999, under the 1987 joint declaration that set the terms for Macau's handover from Portugal to the PRC. In 2002, the independence of East Timor (Asia) was formally recognized by Portugal, after an incomplete decolonization process that was started in 1975 because of the Carnation Revolution. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

On 26 March 1995, Portugal started to implement Schengen Area rules, eliminating border controls with other Schengen members while simultaneously strengthening border controls with non-member states. In 1996 the country was a co-founder of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) headquartered in Lisbon. Expo '98 took place in Portugal and in 1999 it was one of the founding countries of the euro and the eurozone. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

On 5 July 2004, José Manuel Barroso, then Prime Minister of Portugal, was nominated President of the European Commission, the most powerful office in the European Union. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force, after had been signed by the European Union member states on 13 December 2007 in the Jerónimos Monastery, in Lisbon, enhancing the efficiency and democratic legitimacy of the Union and improving the coherence of its action. FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard

Economic disruption and an unsustainable government debt in the wake of the late-2000s financial crisis led the country to negotiate in 2011 with the IMF and the European Union, through the European Financial Stability Mechanism (EFSM) and the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), a loan to help the country stabilise its finances. DELL NSK-DD101 Laptop Keyboard

HP Pavilion ze4130 Laptop Keyboard

Portugal is defined as a Mediterranean climate (Csa in the south, interior, and Douro region; Csb in the north, centre and coastal Alentejo; and also Semi-arid climate or Steppe climate (Bsk in certain parts of Beja district) according to theKoppen-Geiger Climate Classification), and is one of the warmest European countries: HP Mini 210-1073TU Laptop Keyboard

the annual average temperature inmainland Portugal varies from 12 °C (53.6 °F) in the mountainous interior north to over 18 °C (64.4 °F) in the south and on the Guadiana river basin. The Algarve, separated from the Alentejo region by mountains reaching up to 900 metres (3,000 ft) in Pico da Foia, has a climate similar to that of the southern coastal areas of Spain or Southern California. TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5150 Laptop Keyboard

Annual average rainfall in the mainland varies from just over 3,000 mm (118.1 in) in the northern mountains to less than 300 mm (11.8 in) in the area of the Massueime River, near Côa, along the Douro river. Mount Pico is recognized as receiving the largest annual rainfall (over 6,250 mm (246.1 in) per year) in Portugal, according to Instituto de Meteorologia (English: Portuguese Meteorological Institute).[34] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

In some areas, such as the Guadiana basin, annual average temperatures can be as high as 20 °C (68 °F), but summer highest temperatures may be over 45 °C(113 °F). The record high of 47.4 °C (117.3 °F) was recorded in Amareleja, although this might not be the hottest spot in summer, according to satellite readings.[35][36] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Snowfalls occur regularly in the interior North and Center of the country in particular in the districts of Vila Real, Bragança, Viseu and Guarda. In winter temperatures may drop below −10 °C (14.0 °F) in particular in Serra da Estrela, Serra do Gerês and Serra de Montesinho. In these places snow can fall any time from October to May. In the south of the country snowfalls are rare but still occur in the highest elevations.  ASUS F3H Laptop Keyboard

The country has around 2500 to 3200 hours of sunshine a year, an average of 4–6 h in winter and 10–12 h in the summer, with higher values in the southeast and lower in the northwest.

The sea surface temperature on the west coast of mainland Portugal varies from 13 °C (55.4 °F)-15 °C (59.0 °F) in winter to 18 °C (64.4 °F)-20 °C(68.0 °F) in the summer while on the south coast it ranges from 15 °C (59.0 °F) in Winter and rises in the summer to about 23 °C (73.4 °F) occasionally reaching 26 °C (78.8 °F). SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Both the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira have a subtropical climate, although variations between islands exist, making weather predictions very difficult (owing to rough topography). The Madeira and Azorean archipelagos have a narrower temperature range, with annual average temperatures exceeding 20 °C (68 °F)along the coast (according to the Portuguese Meteorological Institute). Some islands in Azores do have drier months in the summer. Consequently, ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard

the island of the Azores have been identified as having a Mediterranean climate (both Csa and Csb types), while some islands (such as Flores or Corvo) are classified as Maritime Temperate (Cfb) or Humid subtropical (Cfa), respectively, according to Koppen-Geiger classification. Porto Santo island in Madeira has a semi-arid Steppe climate (BSh). HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

The Savage Islands, which are part of the regional territory of Madeira are unique in being classified as a Desert climates (BWh) with an annual average rainfall of approximately 150 mm (5.9 in). The sea surface temperature in the archipelagos varies from 17 °C (62.6 °F)-18 °C (64.4 °F) in winter to 24 °C (75.2 °F)-25 °C (77.0 °F) in the summer occasionally reaching 26 °C (78.8 °F).

Azores, and in particular on the island of Madeira, there are large forests of endemic Laurisilva forests (the latter protected as a natural heritage preserve). ACER Aspire 2920Z Laptop Keyboard

There are several species of diverse mammalian fauna, including the fox, badger, Iberian lynx, Iberian Wolf, wild goat (Capra pyrenaica), wild cat (Felis silvestris), hare, weasel, polecat, chameleon, mongoose, civet, brown bear[citation needed] (spotted near Rio Minho, close to Peneda-Gerês) and many others. Portugal is an important stopover for migratory birds, in places such as Cape St. Vincent or the Monchique mountain, where thousands of birds cross from Europe to Africa during the autumn or in the spring (return migration). Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

Most of the avian species congregate along the Iberian Peninsula since it is the closest stopover between northern Europe and Africa. Six hundred bird species occur in Portugal (either for nesting or during the course of migration), and annually there are new registries of nesting species. The archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are transient stopover for American, European, and African birds, while continental Portugal mostly encounters European and African bird species. HP Mini 110-3120la Laptop Keyboard

There are over 100 varieties of freshwater fish species, varying from the giant European catfish (in the Tagus International Natural Park) to some small and endemic species that live only in small lakes (along the western lakes for example). Some of these rare and specific species are highly endangered because of habitat loss, pollution and drought. Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2516 Laptop Keyboard

Upwelling along the west coast of Portugal makes the sea extremely rich in nutrients and diverse species of marine fish; the Portuguese marine waters are one of the richest in the world. Marine fish species are more common, and include thousands of species, such as the sardine(Sardina pilchardus), tuna and Atlantic mackerel. Bioluminescent species are also well represented (including species in different colour spectrum and forms), like the glowing plankton that are possible to observe in some beaches. Lenovo Thinkpad T410I Laptop Keyboard

There are many endemic insect species, most only found in certain parts of Portugal, while other species are more widespread like the stag beetle (Lucanus cervus) and the cicada. The Macaronesian islands (Azores and Madeira) have many endemic species (like birds, reptiles, bats, insects, snails and slugs) that evolved independently from other regions of Portugal. In Madeira, for example, it is possible to observe more than 250 species of land gastropods. ASUS A6700L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Portugal has been a democratic republic since the ratification of the Constitution of 1976, with Lisbon, the nation's largest city, as its capital. The constitution grants the division, or separation, of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The four main institutions as described in this constitution are the President of the Republic, the Parliament, known as theAssembleia da República (English: Assembly of the Republic (Portugal)), the Government, headed by a Prime Minister, and the courts. Toshiba Satellite L655D-S5055 Laptop

The President, who is elected to a five-year term, has a supervisory non-executive role: the current President is Aníbal Cavaco Silva. The Parliament is a chamber composed of 230 deputies elected for a four-year term. The government, whose head is the Prime Minister (currently Pedro Passos Coelho), chooses a Council of Ministers, that comprises the Ministers and State Secretaries. Thecourts are organized into several levels: judicial, administrative, and fiscal branches. The Supreme Courts are institutions of last resort/appeal. A thirteen-member Constitutional Court oversees the constitutionality of the laws. HP Pavilion dv6-2160es laptop keyboard

Portugal operates a multi-party system of competitive legislatures/local administrative governments at the national-, regional- and local-levels. The Legislative Assembly, Regional Assemblies and local municipalities and/or parishes, are dominated by two political parties, the Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Party, HP Pavilion dv2-1044ca laptop keyboard

in addition to the Democratic Unity Coalition (Portuguese Communist Party plus Ecologist Party "The Greens"), the Left Bloc and the Democratic and Social Centre – People's Party, which garner between 5 and 15% of the vote regularly. TOSHIBA MP-06863US-9308 laptop keyboard

The President, elected to a five-year term by direct, universal suffrage, is also Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. Presidential powers include the appointment of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (where the President is obligated by the results from Legislative Elections); dismissing the Prime Minister; dissolving the Assembly (to call early elections); vetoing legislation (which may be overridden by the Assembly); and declaring a State of War or siege. TOSHIBA Satellite M40x Series laptop keyboard

The President is advised on issues of importance by the Council of State, which is composed of six senior civilian officers, any former Presidents elected under the 1976 Constitution, five-members chosen by the Assembly, and five selected by the president.

HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard

Each government is required to define the broad outline of its policies in a program, and present it to the Assembly for a mandatory period of debate. The failure of the Assembly to reject the program by a majority of deputies confirms the government in office. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ770N laptop keyboard

The Portuguese legal system is part of the civil law legal system, also called the continental family legal system. The main laws include the Constitution (1976, as amended), the Civil Code (1966, as amended) and the Penal Code (1982, as amended). Other relevant laws are the Commercial Code (1888, as amended) and the Civil Procedure Code (1961, as amended). DELL Latitude E6400 laptop keyboard

Portuguese law applied in the former colonies and territories and continues to be the major influence for those countries. Portugal's main police organizations are the Guarda Nacional Republicana – GNR (National Republican Guard), a gendarmerie; thePolícia de Segurança Pública – PSP (Public Security Police), a civilian police force who work in urban areas; and the Polícia Judiciária – PJ (Judicial Police), a highly specialized criminal investigation police that is overseen by the Public Ministry. ACER Aspire One A110-1626 laptop keyboard

Portugal was one of the first countries in the world to abolish the death penalty. Maximum jail sentences are limited to 25 years.

Portugal has arguably the most liberal laws concerning possession of illicit drugs in the Western world. In 2001, Portugal decriminalized possession of effectively all drugs that are still illegal in other developed nations including, but not limited to,marijuana, COMPAQ Presario V6103EA laptop keyboard

cocaine, heroin, and LSD. While possession is legal, trafficking and possession of more than "10 days worth of personal use" are still punishable by jail time and fines. People caught with small amounts of any drug are given the choice to go to a rehab facility, and may refuse treatment without consequences. Despite criticism from other European nations, who stated Portugal's drug consumption would tremendously increase, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

overall drug use rose only slightly[citation needed], whilst use among teenagers dropped, along with the number of HIV infection cases, which had dropped 50 percent by 2009.[37][38]

On 31 May 2010, Portugal became the sixth country in Europe and the eighth country in the world to legally recognize same-sex marriage on the national level. The law came into force on 5 June 2010.[39] TOSHIBA Satellite 1410-S173 laptop keyboard

Administratively, Portugal is divided into 308 municipalities (Portuguese: municípios or concelhos), which are subdivided into 4260 civil parishes (Portuguese:freguesia). Operationally, the municipality and civil parish, along with the national government, are the only legally identifiable local administrative unitsidentified by the government of Portugal (for example, cities, towns or villages have no standing in law, DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard

although may be used as catchment for the defining services). For statistical purposes the Portuguese government also identifies NUTS, inter-municipal communities and informally, the district system, used until European integration (and being phased-out by the national government). Continental Portugal is agglomerated into 18 districts,  HP G71-449WM laptop keyboard

while the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are governed as autonomous regions; the largest units, established since 1976, are either mainland Portugal (Portuguese: Portugal Continental) and the autonomous regions of Portugal (Azores and Madeira). SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The 18 districts of mainland Portugal are: Aveiro, Beja, Braga, Bragança, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Évora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisbon, Portalegre, Porto,Santarém, Setúbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real and Viseu – each district takes the name of the district capital. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2804 laptop keyboard

Within the European Union NUTS (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) system, Portugal is divided into seven regions: the Azores, Alentejo, Algarve,Centro, Lisboa, Madeira and Norte, and with the exception of the Azores and Madeira, these NUTS areas are subdivided into 28 subregions. TOSHIBA Satellite C655-SP6007L laptop keyboard

The armed forces have three branches: Navy, Army and Air Force. They serve primarily as a self-defense force whose mission is to protect the territorial integrity of the country and provide humanitarian assistance and security at home and abroad. As of 2008, the three branches numbered 39,200 active personnel including 7,500 women. Portuguese military expenditure in 2009 was $5.2 billion, representing 2.1 percent of GDP. Military conscription was abolished in 2004. The minimum age for voluntary recruitment is 18 years.

HP Pavilion dv6-3034nr laptop keyboard

An infantry brigade(mainly equipped with Pandur II APC), a mechanized brigade (mainly equipped with Leopard 2 A6tanks and M113 APC) and a Rapid Reaction Brigade (consisting of paratroopers, commandos and rangers). The Navy (10,700 personnel, of which 1,580 are marines) has five frigates, seven corvettes, two submarines, and 28 patrol and auxiliary vessels. The Air Force (7,500 personnel) has the Lockheed F-16 Fighting Falcon and the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet as the main combat aircraft. SONY VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q laptop keyboard

In addition to the three branches of the armed forces, there is the National Republican Guard, a security force subject to military law and organization (gendarmerie) comprising 25,000 personnel. This force is under the authority of both the Defense and the Interior Ministry. It has provided detachments for participation in international operations in Iraq and East Timor.

The United States maintains a military presence with 770 troops in the Lajes Air Base at Terceira Island, in the Azores. HP Pavilion dv6-3141se laptop keyboard

The Allied Joint Force Command Lisbon(JFC Lisbon) – one of the three main subdivisions of NATO's Allied Command Operations – it is based in Oeiras, near Lisbon.

In the 20th century, Portugal engaged in two major military interventions: World War I and the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974). HP Pavilion dv6-2154ca laptop keyboard

After the end of the Portuguese Empire in 1975, the Portuguese Armed Forces have participated in peacekeeping missions in East Timor, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Somalia, Iraq (Nasiriyah) and Lebanon. Portugal also conducted several independent unilateral military operations abroad, as were the cases of the interventions of the Portuguese Armed Forces in Angola in 1992 and in Guinea-Bissau in 1998 with the main objectives of protecting and withdrawing of Portuguese and foreign citizens threatened by local civil conflicts. TOSHIBA Tecra M6 laptop keyboard

SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F laptop keyboard



The Portuguese government is heavily indebted, and received a 78 billion euro bailout from the European Union and theInternational Monetary Fund in May 2011.[41] The ratio of Portugal’s debt to its overall economy, was 107 percent when it received the bailout.[41] As part of the deal, the country agreed to cut its budget deficit from 9.8 percent of GDP in 2010 to 5.9 percent in 2011, 4.5 percent in 2012 and 3 percent in 2013.[42] DELL Inspiron 510m Laptop Keyboard

DELL 454RX Laptop Keyboard

After the bailout was announced, the Portuguese government headed by Pedro Passos Coelho managed to implement measures to improve the State's financial situation, including tax hikes, a freeze of civil service-related lower-wages and cuts of higher-wages by 14.3%, on top of the government's spending cuts. SONY VAIO VGN-N325QE/W Laptop Keyboard

The Portuguese government also agreed to eliminate its golden share in Portugal Telecom which gave it veto power over vital decisions.[43][44] In 2012, all public servants had already seen an average wage cut of 20% relative to their 2010 baseline, with cuts reaching 25% for those earning more than 1,500 euro per month.[45] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

The IMF, the European Commission and the European Central Bank said in September 2012 that Portugal’s debt would peak at 124 percent of gross domestic product in 2014.[46] The IMF previously said in July 2012 that Portugal’s debt would peak at about 118.5 percent of GDP in 2013.[46] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

A report released in January 2011 by the Diário de Notícias[47] and published in Portugal by Gradiva, had demonstrated that in the period between the Carnation Revolution in 1974 and 2010, the democratic Portuguese Republic governmentsencouraged over-expenditure and investment bubbles through unclear Public–private partnerships and funding of numerous ineffective and unnecessary external consultancy and advisory of committees and firms. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

This allowed considerable slippage in state-managed public works and inflated top management and head officer bonuses and wages. Persistent and lasting recruitment policies boosted the number of redundant public servants. Riskycredit, public debt creation, and European structural and cohesion funds were mismanaged across almost four decades.[48] HP Pavilion G7-1073NR Laptop Keyboard

After the financial crisis of 2007–2008, it was known in 2008–2009 that two Portuguese banks (Banco Português de Negócios (BPN) and Banco Privado Português(BPP)) had been accumulating losses for years due to bad investiments, embezzlement and accounting fraud. The case of BPN was particularly serious because of its size, market share, and the political implications - Portugal's then current President, HP Pavilion dv6-3141se Laptop Keyboard

Cavaco Silva, and some of his political allies, maintained personal and business relationships with the bank and its CEO, who was eventually charged and arrested for fraud and other crimes.[49][50][51] In the grounds of avoiding a potentially serious financial crisis in the Portuguese economy, the Portuguese government decided to give them a bailout, eventually at a future loss to taxpayers. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

The Portuguese currency is the euro (€) and the country was one of the original member states of the eurozone. Portugal's central bank is the Banco de Portugal, an integral part of the European System of Central Banks. Most industries, businesses and financial institutions are concentrated in the Lisbon and Porto metropolitan areas—theAveiro, Braga, Coimbra and Leiria districts are the biggest economic centres outside these two main areas.[citation needed] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

Since the Carnation Revolution of 1974, which culminated in the end of one of Portugal's most notable phases of economic expansion (that started in the 1960s),[52] a significant change has occurred in the nation's annual economic growth.[citation needed] After the turmoil of the 1974 revolution and the PREC period, Portugal tried to adapt to a changing modern global economy, a process that continues in 2013. Since the 1990s, SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

Portugal's public consumption-basedeconomic development model has been slowly changing to a system that is focused on exports, private investment and the development of the high-tech sector. Consequently, business services have overtaken more traditional industries such as textiles, clothing, footwear and cork (Portugal is the world's leading cork producer),[53] wood products and beverages.[54] SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard

In the second decade of the 21st century the Portuguese economy suffered its most severe recession since the 1970s and 2013 was the final year of a three-year European Union aid program. It is anticipated that the conclusion of the EU's support package, worth €78 billion, will leave Portugal with a €12 billion funding gap in 2014.[55] Forecasts from the EU and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) predicted that the Portuguese unemployment rate will peak in 2014 at 18.5 per cent.[56] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

Agriculture in Portugal is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. However, the sector also includes larger scale intensive farming export-oriented agrobusinesses backed by companies (like Grupo RAR's Vitacress, Sovena,Lactogal, Vale da Rosa, Companhia das Lezírias and Valouro). The country produces a wide variety of crops and livestock products, including tomatoes, citrus, green vegetables, rice, corn, barley, olives, oilseeds, nuts, cherries, bilberry, table grapes, edible mushrooms, dairy products, poultry and beef. HP 636191-001 Laptop Keyboard

Forestry has also played an important economic role among the rural communities and industry (namely paper industry that includes Portucel Soporcel Group, engineered wood that includes Sonae Indústria, and furniture that includes several manufacturing plants in and around Paços de Ferreira, the core of Portugal's major industrial operations of IKEA). In 2001, the gross agricultural product accounted for 4 per cent of the national GDP. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

Traditionally a sea-power, Portugal has had a strong tradition in the Portuguese fishing sector and is one of the countries with the highest fish consumption per capita.[57] The main landing sites in Portugal (including Azores and Madeira), according to total landings in weight by year, are the harbours of Matosinhos, SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard

Peniche, Olhão, Sesimbra, Figueira da Foz,Sines, Portimão and Madeira. Portuguese processed fish products are exported through several companies, under a number of different brands and registered trademarks, such as Ramirez (the world’s oldest active canned fish producer), Bom Petisco, Nero, Combate, Comur, General, Líder, Manná, Murtosa, Pescador, Pitéu, Tenório, Torreira and Vasco da Gama.[citation needed] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Portugal is a significant European minerals producer and is ranked among Europe's leading copper producers. The nation is also a notable producer of tin,tungsten and uranium. However, the country lacks the potential to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and aluminium, a limitation that has hindered the development of Portugal's its mining and metallurgy sectors. Although the country has vast iron and coal reserves--DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

mainly in the north—after the 1974 revolution and the consequent economic globalization, low competitiveness forced a decrease in the extraction activity for these minerals. The Panasqueira and Neves-Corvo minesare among the most recognised Portuguese mines that are still in operation.[citation needed] TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard

Industry is diversified, ranging from automobile (Volkswagen Autoeuropa, Peugeot Citroen), aerospace (Embraer), electronicsand textiles, to food, chemicals, cement and wood pulp. Volkswagen Group's AutoEuropa motor vehicle assembly plant in Palmelais among the largest foreign direct investment projects in Portugal. HP Pavilion tx2650eg laptop keyboard

HP 6730S laptop keyboard

Modern non-traditional technology-based industries, such as aerospace, biotechnology and information technology, have been developed in several locations across the country. Alverca, Covilhã,[58] Évora,[59] and Ponte de Sor are the main centres of the Portuguese aerospace industry, which is led by Brazil-based company Embraer and the Portuguese company OGMA. Following the turn of the 21st century, many major biotechnology and information technology industries have been founded, and are concentrated in the metropolitan areas of Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Coimbra and Aveiro. ACER Aspire 9411awsmi ms2195 laptop keyboard

The Global Competitiveness Report for 2005, published by the World Economic Forum, placed Portugal's competitiveness in the 22nd position, but the 2008–2009 edition placed Portugal in the 43rd position out of 134 countries and territories.[62]Research about quality of life by the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life survey placed Portugal as the country with the 19th-best quality of life in the world for 2005, Compaq Presario CQ42-219AX laptop keyboard

ahead of other economically and technologically advanced countries like France, Germany, the United Kingdom and South Korea, but 9 places behind its only neighbour, Spain.[63] This is despite the fact that Portugal remains the country with the lowest per capita GDP in Western Europe.[64] HP Mini 311-1000NR laptop keyboard

The poor performance of the Portuguese economy was explored in April 2007 by The Economist, which described Portugal as "a new sick man of Europe".[65] From 2002 to 2007, the unemployment rate increased by 65% (270,500 unemployed citizens in 2002, 448,600 unemployed citizens in 2007).[66] By early December 2009, unemployment had reached 10.2% – a 23-year record high.  Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

 [67] In July 2011, ratings agency Moody's downgraded its long-term credit assessment of Portugal after warning of deteriorating risk of default in March 2011.[68]

Corruption has become an issue of major political and economic significance for the country. Some cases are well known and were widely reported in the media, such as the affairs in several municipalities that involved local town hall officials, businesspersons, TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-S5067 laptop keyboard

and a number of politicians with wider responsibilities and power.[69][70] Nevertheless, the 2010 Transparency International report places Portugal in 31st position for perceived corruption, just below Israel and Spain.[71] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

 significance.[72][73] According to Barry (2003), "what appears to have been crucial in the Portuguese case, relative to Spain at least, is the degree of labour-market flexibility that the economy exhibits.... Thus Portuguese convergence has been impressive, even though, consistent with its relatively low human-capital stock, the economy has specialised in low-tech production."[73] DELL Vostro 1014 laptop keyboard

On 6 April 2011, Prime Minister José Sócrates announced on national television that the country would request financial assistance from the IMF and the European Financial Stability Facility, as Greece and the Republic of Ireland had done previously. It was the third time that the Portuguese government had requested external financial aid from the IMF—the first occasion occurred in the late 1970s following the Carnation's Revolution. In October 2011, Moody's Investor Servicesdowngraded nine Portuguese banks due to financial weakness.[74] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

Although Portugal is a developed country and a high income country, it has the lowest GDP per capita in Western Europe and its income per capita figure is one of the lowest among the EU's member states. According to Eurostat, Portugal's GDP per capita was registered at 80 per cent of the EU27 average in 2009,[76]making it the tenth lowest in the Union. SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard

The average wage in Portugal is 1,039 € per month (net),[77] and the minimum wage, which is regulated/ref by law, is €485 per month. In 2008 the unemployment rate decreased to 7.3 per cent in the second quarter,[78] but the rate immediately rose again in the following period. By December 2009, unemployment had surpassed the 10 per cent mark nationwide in the wake of worldwide events—by 2010, the rate was around 11 per cent, FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 Laptop Keyboard

and in 2011 it was above 12 per cent.[citation needed] The first quarter of 2013 signified a new unemployment rate record for Portugal, as it reached 17.7 per cent—up from 16.9 per cent in the previous quarter—and the government has predicted an 18.5 per cent unemployment rate in 2014.[56] HP 594706-001 Laptop Keyboard

In 2005, the number of public employees per thousand inhabitants in the Portuguese government (70.8) was above the European Union average (62.4 per thousand inhabitants). By EU and USA standards, Portugal's justice system was internationally known as being slow and inefficient, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

and by 2011 it was the second slowest in Western Europe (after Italy); conversely, Portugal has one of the highest rates of judges and prosecutors—over 30 per 100,000 people. The entire Portuguesepublic service has been known for its overcapacity, useless redundancies and a general lack of overall productivity.[75] HP Pavilion dv6-2044ca Laptop Keyboard

In the first week of May 2013, Prime Minister Passos Coelho announced a significant government plan for the public sector, whereby 30,000 jobs will be cut, the retirement age will be increased from 65 to 66 and the number of weekly working hours will be increased from 35 to 40. DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

Coelho reaffirmed the announcement by explaining that austerity measures are necessary if Portugal seeks to avoid another monetary bailout grant from the European Commission, European Central Bank and International Monetary Fund—the overall plan intends to enact further cuts of €4.8 billion over a three-year period.[56] SAMSUNG X20 Laptop Keyboard

Portugal is among the 20 most visited countries in the world, receiving an average of 13 million foreign tourists each year.[79] Tourism is playing an increasingly important role in Portugal's economy, contributing to about 5% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP).[citation needed] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Tourist hotspots in Portugal are Lisbon, Algarve and Madeira, but the Portuguese government continues to promote and develop new tourist destinations, such as the Douro Valley, the island of Porto Santo, and Alentejo. Lisbon is, after Barcelona, the European city which attracts the most tourists (with seven million tourists occupying the city's hotels in 2006, a number that grew 11.8% compared to previous year).[80] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard

Lisbon in recent years surpassed the Algarve as the leading tourist region in Portugal. Porto and Northern Portugal, especially the urban areas north of Douro River valley, was the tourist destination which grew most (11.9%) in 2006, surpassing Madeira (in 2010), as the third most visited destination.[citation needed] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Most tourists in Portugal are British-, Spanish- or German-origin visitors, travel by low cost airliners, and not only seek sun and beaches, but increasingly search for cultural, gastronomic, environmental or nautical experiences (or travel for reasons of business).[citation needed] COMPAQ Presario C500 Laptop Keyboard

Scientific and technological research activities in Portugal are mainly conducted within a network of R&D units belonging topublic universities and state-managed autonomous research institutions like the INETI – Instituto Nacional de Engenharia, Tecnologia e Inovação and the INRB – Instituto Nacional dos Recursos Biológicos. HP Pavilion dv4-1220us Laptop Keyboard

The funding and management of this research system is mainly conducted under the authority of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MCTES) itself and the MCTES's Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT). TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

The largest R&D units of the public universities by volume of research grants and peer-reviewed publications, include biosciences research institutions like the Instituto de Medicina Molecular, the Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, the IPATIMUP, the Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular and theAbel Salazar Biomedical Sciences Institute. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

Among the largest non-state-run research institutions in Portugal are the Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência and theChampalimaud Foundation, a neuroscience and oncology research centre, which in addition awards every year one of the highest monetary prizes of any science prize in the world. A number of both national and multinational high-tech and industrial companies, are also responsible for research and development projects. One of the oldest learned societies of Portugal is the Sciences Academy of Lisbon, founded in 1779. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

Iberian bilateral state-supported research efforts include the International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory and theIbercivis distributed computing platform, which are joint research programmes of both Portugal and Spain. Portugal is a member of several pan-European scientific organizations. These include the European Space Agency (ESA), the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN), ITER, HP Mini 110-3110sq laptop keyboard

and the European Southern Observatory (ESO).

Portugal has the largest aquarium in Europe, the Lisbon Oceanarium, and the Portuguese have several other notable organizations focused on science-related exhibits and divulgation, like the state agency Ciência Viva, a programme of the Portuguese Ministry of Science and Technology to the promotion of a scientific and technological culture among the Portuguese population,[83] the Science Museum of the University of Coimbra, the National Museum of Natural History at the University of Lisbon, and the Visionarium. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

With the emergence and growth of several science parks throughout the world that helped create many thousands of scientific, technological and knowledge-based businesses, Portugal started to develop several[84] science parks across the country. These include the Taguspark (in Oeiras), the Coimbra iParque (in Coimbra), the biocant (in Cantanhede), the Madeira Tecnopolo[85](in Funchal), Sines Tecnopolo[86] (in Sines), HP G61-408CA laptop keyboard

Tecmaia[87] (in Maia) and Parkurbis[88] (in Covilhã). Companies locate in the Portuguese science parks to take advantage of a variety of services ranging from financial and legal advice through to marketing and technological support.

Egas Moniz, a Portuguese physician who developed the cerebral angiography and leucotomy, received in 1949 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine – he is the first Portuguese recipient of a Nobel Prize and the only in the sciences. Compaq Presario CQ71-420ED laptop keyboard

The European Innovation Scoreboard 2011, placed Portugal-based innovation in the 15th position, with an impressive increase in innovation expenditure and output.[89]

Portugal has considerable resources of wind and river power, the two most cost-effective renewable sources. Since the turn of the 21st century, SONY VAIO VGN-CR220E laptop keyboard

there has been a trend towards the development of a renewable resource industry and reduction of both consumption and use of fossil fuel resources. In 2006, the world's largest solar power plant at that date, the Moura Photovoltaic Power Station, began operating near Moura, in the south, while the world's first commercial wave power farm, theAguçadoura Wave Farm, opened in the Norte region (2008). HP Pavilion dv6-3045eo laptop keyboard

By the end of 2006, 66% of the country's electrical production was from coal and fuel power plants, while 29% were derived from hydroelectric dams, and 6% by wind energy.[90] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E525 laptop keyboard

Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

In 2008, renewable energy resources were producing 43% of the nation's consumption of electricity, even as hydroelectric production decreased with severe droughts.[91] As of June 2010, electricity exports had outnumbered imports. In the period between January and May 2010, 70% of the national production of energy came from renewable sources.[92] HP Mini 210-1110SB laptop keyboard

Portugal’s national energy transmission company, Redes Energéticas Nacionais (REN), uses sophisticated modeling to predict weather, especially wind patterns, and computer programs to calculate energy from the various renewable-energy plants. Before the solar/wind revolution, Portugal had generated electricity from hydropower plants on its rivers for decades. New programs combine wind and water: SAMSUNG NP-Q320-AS01UK laptop keyboard

wind-driven turbines pump water uphill at night, the most blustery period; then the water flows downhill by day, generating electricity, when consumer demand is highest. Portugal’s distribution system is also now a two-way street. Instead of just delivering electricity, it draws electricity from even the smallest generators, like rooftop solar panels. The government aggressively encouraged such contributions by setting a premium price for those who buy rooftop-generated solar electricity. TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5075 laptop keyboard

The Instituto Nacional de Estatística (Portuguese: National Institute of Statistics) estimates that, according to the 2011 census, the population was 10,562,178 (of which 52% was female, 48% was male). This population has been relatively homogeneous for most of its history: a single religion (Catholicism) and a single language have contributed to this ethnic and national unity, namely after the expulsion of the Moors, Moriscos and Sephardi Jews.[93] HP Pavilion G4-1016TX LQ368PA laptop keyboard

Native Portuguese are an Iberian ethnic group, whose ancestry is very similar to other Western and Southern Europeans and Mediterranean peoples, in particular Spaniards, with whom they share a common ancestry, history and cultural proximity. SONY Vaio VGN-FW390 laptop keyboard

The most important demographic influence in the modern Portuguese seems to be the oldest one; current interpretation of Y-chromosome and mtDNA data suggests that the Portuguese have their origin in Paleolithic peoples that began arriving to the European continent around 45,000 years ago. All subsequent migrations did leave an impact, TOSHIBA Satellite L200 laptop keyboard

genetically and culturally, but the main population source of the Portuguese is still Paleolithic. Studies of mitochondrial DNA suggest that 7% and 5–9% of modern Portuguese have some North- and Subsaharan-African ancestry, respectively. HP Pavilion DV6-6B00 laptop keyboard

 [95]

Portugal's colonial history has long since been a cornerstone of its national identity, as has its geographic position at the southwestern corner of Europe, looking out into the Atlantic Ocean. It was the last western colonial European powers to give up its overseas territories (among them Angola and Mozambique in 1975), turning over the administration of Macau to the People's Republic of China at the end of 1999. Consequently, it has both influenced and been influenced by cultures from former colonies or dependencies, resulting in immigration from these former territories for both economic and/or personal reasons. SAMSUNG NP-Q320-AS01UK laptop keyboard

Portugal, long a country of emigration (the vast majority of Brazilians have some Portuguese ancestry),[98] has now become a country of net immigration,[99] and not just from the last Indian (Portuguese until 1961), African (Portuguese until 1975), and Far East Asian (Portuguese until 1999) overseas territories. An estimated 800,000 Portuguese returned to Portugal as the country's African possessions gained independence in 1975.[98] By 2007, Portugal had 10,617,575 inhabitants of whom about 332,137 were legal immigrants.[100] HP Pavilion dv5-1174ca laptop keyboard

Since the 1990s, along with a boom in construction, several new waves of Ukrainian, Brazilian, people from the former Portuguese colonies in Africa and other Africans have settled in the country. Romanians, Moldovans and Chinese have also chosen Portugal as destination. Portugal's Romani population, estimated at about 40,000.[101] Most Romanis congregate with similar ethnic groups in the southern parts of the country and sell clothing and handicrafts in rural markets. SONY VAIO PCG-FR33/B laptop keyboard

 In addition, a number of EU citizens, mostly from the United Kingdom, northern European or Nordic countries, have become permanent residents in the country (with the British community being mostly composed of retired pensioners and choosing to live in the Algarve and Madeira).[102] HP 643263-001 Laptop Keyboard

According to the 2011 Census, 81% of the Portuguese population are Roman Catholic. The country has small Protestant, Mormon, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh,Christian Orthodox, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baha'i, Buddhist and Jewishcommunities. Some 6.8% of the population declared themselves to be non-religious.[103] SONY VAIO VGN-CS170F/R Laptop Keyboard

Many Portuguese holidays, festivals and traditions have a Christian origin or connotation. Although relations between the Portuguese state and the Roman Catholic Church were generally amiable and stable since the earliest years of the Portuguese nation, their relative power fluctuated. In the 13th and 14th centuries, ACER TravelMate 4600 Laptop Keyboard

the church enjoyed both riches and power stemming from its role in the reconquest, its close identification with early Portuguese nationalism and the foundation of the Portuguese educational system, including the first university. The growth of the Portuguese overseas empire made its missionaries important agents of colonization, APPLE A1181 Laptop Keyboard

with important roles in theeducation and evangelization of people from all the inhabited continents. The growth of liberal and nascent republicanmovements during the eras leading to the formation of the First Portuguese Republic (1910–26) changed the role and importance of organized religion. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Portugal is a secular state: church and state were formally separated during the Portuguese First Republic, and later reiterated in the 1976 Portuguese Constitution. Other than the Constitution, the two most important documents relating to religious freedom in Portugal are: the 1940 Concordata (later amended in 1971) between Portugal and the Holy See, and the 2001 Religious Freedom Act. GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard

Portuguese is the official language of Portugal. Portuguese is a Romance language that originated in what is nowGalicia (Spain) and Northern Portugal, from the Galician-Portuguese language. It is derived from the Latin spoken by the romanized Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula around 2000 years ago. In the 15th and 16th centuries, ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard

it spread worldwide as Portugal established a colonial and commercial empire (1415–1999). In the present day, Portuguese is spoken as a native language on 4 different continents, with Brazil accounting for the largest number of native Portuguese speakers in any country. SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

As a result, nowadays the Portuguese language is also official and spoken in Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, and East Timor. These countries, plus MacauSpecial Administrative Region (People's Republic of China), make up the Lusosphere, DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

term derived from the ancientRoman province of Lusitania, which currently matches the Portuguese territory south of the Douro river. Mirandeseis also recognized as a co-official regional language in some municipalities of northeastern Portugal. Compaq Presario CQ56-187SL laptop keyboard

It retains fewer than 5,000 speakers in Portugal (a number that can be up to 12,000 if counting second language speakers).

The educational system is divided into preschool (for those under age 6), basic education (9 years, in three stages, compulsory), secondary education (3 years, until 12th grade), and higher education (university and polytechnic). Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

The total adult literacy rate is 99 percent. Portuguese primary school enrollments are close to 100 percent. According to the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009, the average Portuguese 15-year-old student, when rated in terms of reading literacy, mathematics and science knowledge, is placed at the same level as those students from the United States, Sweden, Germany, Ireland, France, Denmark, Compaq Presario CQ71-101XX laptop keyboard

United Kingdom, Hungary and Taipei, with 489 points (493 is the average).[104] Over 35% of college-age citizens (20 years old) attend one of the country's higher education institutions[105] (compared with 50% in the United States and 35% in the OECD countries). In addition to being a destination for international students, Portugal is also among the top places of origin for international students. All higher education students, both domestic and international, totaled 380,937 in 2005.

Portuguese universities have existed since 1290. SONY VAIO VGN-FS920 laptop keyboard

Historically, within the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the Portuguese founded in 1792 the oldest engineering school of Latin America (the Real Academia de Artilharia, Fortificação e Desenho), as well as the oldest medical college in Asia (the Escola Médico-Cirúrgica de Goa) in 1842. Lenovo 3000 G230 laptop keyboard

Institutes and schools are also common designations for autonomous subdivisions of Portuguese higher education institutions. The Bologna process has been adopted since 2006 by Portuguese universities and polytechnical institutes. Higher education in state-run educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis, Dell Latitude D410 laptop keyboard

a system of numerus clausus is enforced through a national database on student admissions. However, every higher education institution offers also a number of additional vacant places through other extraordinary admission processes for sportsmen, mature applicants (over 23 years old),international students, ACER Aspire 1680 laptop keyboard

foreign students from the Lusosphere, degree owners from other institutions, students from other institutions (academic transfer), former students (readmission), and course change, which are subject to specific standards and regulations set by each institution or course department. Most student costs are supported with public money. TOSHIBA Tecra A9-S9016X laptop keyboard

However, with the increasing tuition fees a student has to pay to attend a Portuguese state-run higher education institution and the attraction of new types of students (many as part-time students or in evening classes) like employees, businessmen, parents, and pensioners, many departments make a substantial profit from every additional student enrolled in courses, HP Mini 210-2006sa laptop keyboard

with benefits for the college or university's gross tuition revenue and without loss of educational quality (teacher per student, computer per student, classroom size per student, etc.).

Portugal has entered into cooperation agreements with MIT (US) and other North American institutions to further develop and increase the effectiveness of Portuguese higher education and research. Lenovo 63Y0047 laptop keyboard

The Portuguese health system is characterized by three coexisting systems: the National Health Service (NHS), special social health insurance schemes for certain professions (health subsystems) and voluntary private health insurance. The NHS provides universal coverage. In addition, about 25% of the population is covered by the health subsystems, 10% by private insurance schemes and another 7% by mutual funds. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

The Ministry of Health is responsible for developing health policy as well as managing the NHS. Five regional health administrations are in charge of implementing the national health policy objectives, developing guidelines and protocols and supervising health care delivery. Decentralization efforts have aimed at shifting financial and management responsibility to the regional level. In practice, however, the autonomy of regional health administrations over budget setting and spending has been limited to primary care. ACER Aspire AS5335-2257 laptop keyboard

The NHS is predominantly funded through general taxation. Employer (including the state) and employee contributions represent the main funding sources of the health subsystems. In addition, direct payments by the patient and voluntary health insurance premiums account for a large proportion of funding. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

Similar to the other Eur-A countries, most Portuguese die from noncommunicable diseases. Mortality from cardiovascular diseases (CVD) is higher than in the eurozone, but its two main components, ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, display inverse trends compared with the Eur-A, with cerebrovascular disease being the single biggest killer in Portugal (17%). HP Pavilion DV6-1210ew laptop keyboard

Portuguese people die 12% less often from cancer than in the Eur-A, but mortality is not declining as rapidly as in the Eur-A. Cancer is more frequent among children as well as among women younger than 44 years. Although lung cancer (slowly increasing among women) and breast cancer (decreasing rapidly) are scarcer, cancer of the cervix and the prostate are more frequent. Portugal has the highest mortality rate for diabetes in the Eur-A, with a sharp increase since the late 1980s. HP HDX18-1100 CTO laptop keyboard

Portugal's infant mortality rate has dropped sharply since the 1980s, when 24 of 1000 newborns died in the first year of life. It is now around 3 deaths per a 1000 newborns. This improvement was mainly due to the decrease in neonatal mortality, from 15.5 to 3.4 per 1000 live births.

People are usually well informed about their health status, the positive and negative effects of their behaviour on their health and their use of health care services. TOSHIBA Satellite P105-S9337 laptop keyboard

Yet their perceptions of their health can differ from what administrative and examination-based data show about levels of illness within populations. Thus, survey results based on self-reporting at the household level complement other data on health status and the use of services. Only one third of adults rated their health as good or very good in Portugal (Kasmel et al., 2004). This is the lowest of the Eur-A countries reporting and reflects the relatively adverse situation of the country in terms of mortality and selected morbidity.[106] HP Pavilion ze4600 laptop keyboard

Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

Portugal has developed a specific culture while being influenced by various civilizations that have crossed the Mediterranean and the European continent, or were introduced when it played an active role during the Age of Discovery. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), Portugal modernized its public cultural facilities, in addition to the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundationestablished in 1956 in Lisbon. These include the Belém Cultural Center in Lisbon, HP Pavilion dv6-2162nr laptop keyboard

Serralves Foundation and the Casa da Música, both in Porto, as well as new public cultural facilities like municipal libraries and concert halls that were built or renovated in many municipalities across the country.  SONY VAIO VGN-AW2XRY laptop keyboard

Portugal is home to fourteen UNESCO World Heritage Sites, ranking it 9th in Europe and 18th in the world.

Portuguese literature, one of the earliest Western literatures, developed through text as well as song. Until 1350, thePortuguese-Galician troubadours spread their literary influence to most of the Iberian Peninsula.[110] Gil Vicente (c. 1465–c. 1536), was one of the founders of both Portuguese and Spanish dramatic traditions. HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

Adventurer and poet Luís de Camões (c. 1524–1580) wrote the epic poem "Os Lusíadas" (The Lusiads), with Virgil's Aeneid as his main influence. Modern Portuguese poetry is rooted in neoclassic and contemporary styles, DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

as exemplified by Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935). Modern Portuguese literature is represented by authors such as Almeida Garrett, Camilo Castelo Branco,Eça de Queiroz, Fernando Pessoa, Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, António Lobo Antunes and Miguel Torga. Particularly popular and distinguished is José Saramago, recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

Portuguese cuisine is diverse. The Portuguese consume a lot of dry cod (bacalhau in Portuguese), for which there are hundreds of recipes. There are more than enough bacalhau dishes for each day of the year. Two other popular fish recipes are grilledsardines and caldeirada, a potato-based stew that can be made from several types of fish. ACER Aspire 7535 Laptop Keyboard

Typical Portuguese meat recipes, that may be made out of beef, pork, lamb, or chicken, include cozido à portuguesa, feijoada, frango de churrasco, leitão (roast suckling pig) and carne de porco à alentejana, a very popular northern dish is the arroz de sarrabulho (rice stewed in pigs blood) or the arroz de cabidela (Rice and chickens meat stewed in chickens blood). Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Traditional architecture is distinctive and include the Manueline, also known as Portuguese late Gothic, a sumptuous, composite Portuguese style of architectural ornamentation of the first decades of the 16th century. A 20th-century interpretation of traditional architecture, Soft Portuguese style, appears extensively in major cities, DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

especially Lisbon. Modern Portugal has given the world renowned architects like Eduardo Souto de Moura, Álvaro Siza Vieira (both Pritzker Prizewinners) and Gonçalo Byrne. In Portugal Tomás Taveira is also noteworthy, particularly for stadium design.[107][108][109]

 Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The Portuguese art of pastry has its origins in Middle Ages Catholic monasteries widely spread across the country. These monasteries, using very few ingredients (mostly almonds, flour, eggs and some liquor), managed to create a spectacular wide range of different pastries, of which pastéis de Belém (or pastéis de nata) originally from Lisbon, and ovos moles from Aveiro are examples. Portuguese cuisine is very diverse, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

with different regions having their own traditional dishes. The Portuguese have a culture of good food and throughout the country there are myriad good restaurants and small typical tascas.

Portuguese wines have deserved international recognition since the times of the Roman Empire, which associated Portugal with their god Bacchus. HP 383495-001 Laptop Keyboard

Today the country is known by wine lovers and its wines have won several international prizes. Some of the best Portuguese wines are: Vinho Verde, Vinho Alvarinho, Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Dão, Vinho da Bairradaand the sweet: Port Wine, Madeira Wine and the Moscatel from Setúbal and Favaios. Port Wine is well known around the world and the most widely known wine type in the world.[citation needed] The Douro wine region is the oldest in the world.[citation needed] SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

Portuguese music encompasses a wide variety of genres. The most renowned is fado, a melancholy urban music, usually associated with the Portuguese guitar and saudade, or longing. Coimbra fado, a unique type of fado, is also noteworthy. Internationally notable performers include Amália Rodrigues, Carlos Paredes, José Afonso, Mariza, Carlos do Carmo, António Chainho, Mísia, and Madredeus. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

In addition to fado and folk, the Portuguese listen to pop and other types of modern music, particularly from North America and the United Kingdom, as well as a wide range of Portuguese and Brazilian artists and bands. Artists with international recognition include Moonspell, Buraka Som Sistema, Blasted Mechanism and The Gift, with the two latter being nominees for a MTV Europe Music Award. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Portugal has several summer music festivals, such as Festival Sudoeste in Zambujeira do Mar, Festival de Paredes de Coura in Paredes de Coura, Festival Vilar de Mouros near Caminha, Boom Festival in Idanha-a-Nova Municipality, andOptimus Alive!, Rock in Rio Lisboa and Super Bock Super Rock in Greater Lisbon. SONY VAIO VGN-FS485B Laptop Keyboard

Out of the summer season, Portugal has a large number of festivals, designed more to an urban audience, like Flowfest or Hip Hop Porto. Furthermore, one of the largest international Goa trance festivals takes place in central Portugal every two years, the Boom Festival, that is also the only festival in Portugal to win international awards: SONY VAIO VGN-FS195XP Laptop Keyboard

European Festival Award 2010 – Green'n'Clean Festival of the Year and the Greener Festival Award Outstanding 2008 and 2010. There is also the student festivals of Queima das Fitas are major events in a number of cities across Portugal. In 2005, Portugal held the MTV Europe Music Awards, in Pavilhão Atlântico, Lisbon. HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

It has also a rich history as far as painting is concerned. The first well-known painters date back to the 15th century – likeNuno Gonçalves – were part of the Gothic painting period. José Malhoa, known for his work Fado, and Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro(who painted the portraits of Teófilo Braga and Antero de Quental) were both references in naturalist painting.

The 20th century saw the arrival of Modernism, and along with it came the most prominent SONY VAIO VGN-FS195XP laptop keyboard

TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s121 laptop keyboard

Manama

Manama (Arabic: المنامة‎ Al Manāma) is the capital and largest city of Bahrain, with an approximate population of 155,000 people. Long an important trading center in the Persian Gulf, Manama is home to a very diverse population. After periods of Portuguese and Persian control and invasions from the ruling dynasties of Saudi Arabia and Oman, SONY VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q laptop keyboard

Bahrain established itself as an independent nation during the 19th century period of British hegemony. In the 20th century, Bahrain's oil wealth helped spur fast growth and in the 1990s a concerted diversification effort led to expansion in other industries and helped transform Manama into an important financial hub in the Middle East. Manama was designated as the capital of Arab culture for the year 2012 by the Arab League.[1][2] HP Pavilion dv6-3141se laptop keyboard

Manama was mentioned in Islamic chronicles at least as far back as 1345. It was conquered by Portugal in 1521 and then by the Persians in 1602.[3] Since 1783 it has been under the control of the Al-Khalifa dynasty. Manama was declared afree port in 1958, and in 1971 it became the capital of independent Bahrain.[4] HP Pavilion dv6-2154ca laptop keyboard

The north of Bahrain’s main island, which is dominated by Manama today, has seen human activity for roughly 5,000 years, as is indicated from the remains around Bahrain Fort. Early inhabitants are often associated with the historicalDilmun Civilisation though the historical records of Dilmun are scanty. TOSHIBA Tecra M6 laptop keyboard

The islanders were soon, however, disturbed by a series of invaders, beginning with the Assyrians during the BC period and ending with the Arabs. During these many centuries Bahrain was a trading post whose importance fluctuated depending on which empire dominated. Manama and its inhabitants were first introduced to Islam during the 7th century and by the 9th century began to lean to a more esoteric view of Islam and practiced a quasi-socialist belief system (though it also contained massive slave labor) that caused considerable friction with the surrounding Muslim lands. The Qarmatians, SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F laptop keyboard

 as this group was known, began waylaying pilgrims on the hajj to Mecca killing thousands, culminating in the ransack of Mecca in 930 escaping with the much revered Black Stone. A feud with the Baghdad-based Abbasids less than 50 years later saw the Qarmatians leave the town, returning the stone. DELL Inspiron 510m Laptop Keyboard

DELL 454RX Laptop Keyboard

The next major foreign intervention in Bahrain came at the beginning of the 16th century when the Portuguese naval fleets arrived, quickly crushing the small local population in Manama and the surrounding areas. Bahrain Fort was built during this era, probably to keep out the Persians who nevertheless managed a series of invasions as the whole island alternated between the Portuguese, Persians, SONY VAIO VGN-N325QE/W Laptop Keyboard

and Omanis for the following two centuries. Once the Persians eventually forced the other two out, it was not long before the Al Khalifa family appeared from nearby Qatar, to take control of the whole of the island at the end of the 18th century. The new rulers, whose dynasty continues to this day, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

sought protection against the Persians from the British Empire, which by that time had established its hegemony in much of the Middle East, and Manama entered a period of colonial influence. Colonial interest only increased when petroleum was discovered 30 km (19 mi) south of Manama in the centre of the island and first extracted in 1931. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

After World War II, Bahrain moved slowly towards independence and eventually in 1971 the British pulled out leaving Manama in charge of its own affairs. This was the beginning of a period that has seen it grow and flourish primarily due to the considerable wealth accumulated through oil production and processing. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

Manama is the focal point of the Bahraini economy. While petroleum has decreased in importance in recent years due to depleting reserves and growth in other industries, it is still the mainstay of the economy. Heavy industry (e.g. aluminiumsmelting, ship repair), banking and finance, and tourism are among the industries which have experienced recent growth. Several multinationals have facilities and offices in and around Manama.[6] HP Pavilion G7-1073NR Laptop Keyboard

The primary industry in Manama itself is financial services, with over two hundred financial institutions and banks based in the CBD and the Diplomatic Area. Manama is a financial hub for the Persian Gulf region and a center of Islamic banking. There is also a large retail sector in the shopping malls around Seef, while the center of Manama is dominated by small workshops and traders. HP Pavilion dv6-3141se Laptop Keyboard

The widening of roads in the old districts of Manama and the development of a national network linking the capital to other settlements commenced as early as the arrival of the first car in 1914.[7] The continuous increase in the number of cars from 395 in 1944,[7] to 3,379 in 1954 and to 18,372 cars in 1970[7] caused urban development to primarily focus on expanding the road network, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

widening carriageways and the establishment of more parking spaces.[7] Many tracks previously laid in the pre-oil era (prior to the 1930s) were resurfaced and widened, turning them into 'road arteries'. Initial widening of the roads started in the Manama Souq district, widening its main roads by demolishing encroaching houses.[7] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

A series of ring roads were constructed (Isa al Kabeer avenue in the 1930s, Exhibition avenue in the 1960s and Al Fateh highway in the 1980s[7]), to push back the coastline and extend the city area in belt-like forms.[7] To the north, the foreshore used to be around Government Avenue in the 1920s but it shifted to a new road, King Faisal Road, in the early 1930s which became the coastal road.[7] To the east, a bridge connected Manama to Muharraq since 1929, a new causeway was built in 1941 which replaced the old wooden bridge.[7] Transits between the two islands peaked after the construction of the Bahrain International Airport in 1932.[7] ACER Aspire 2920Z Laptop Keyboard

To the south of Manama, roads connected groves, lagoons and marshes of Hoora, Adliya, Gudaibiya and Juffair.[7] Villages such as Mahooz, Ghuraifa, Seqaya served as the end of these roads. To the west, a major highway was built that linked Manama to the isolated village port of Budaiya,[7] this highway crossed through the 'green belt' villages of Sanabis, Jidhafs and Duraz.[7] To the south, a road was built that connected Manama to Riffa. The discovery of oil accelerated the growth of the city's road network.[7] Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

The four main islands and all the towns and villages are linked by well-constructed roads. There were 3,164 km (1,966 mi) of roadways in 2002, of which 2,433 km (1,512 mi) were paved. A causeway stretching over 2.8 km (2 mi), connect Manama with Muharraq Island, and another bridge joins Sitra to the main island. HP Mini 110-3120la Laptop Keyboard

A four-lane highway atop a 24 km (15 mi) causeway, linking Bahrain with the Saudi Arabian mainland via the island of Umm an-Nasan was completed in December, 1986, and financed by Saudi Arabia. In 2000, there were 172,684 passenger vehicles and 41,820 commercial vehicles.

Bahrain's port of Mina Salman can accommodate 16 oceangoing vessels drawing up to 11 m (36 ft). In 2001, Bahrain had a merchant fleet of eight ships of 1,000GRT or over, totaling 270,784 GRT. Private vehicles and taxis are the primary means of transportation in the city. Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2516 Laptop Keyboard

A sovereign state is a political organization with a centralized government that has supreme independent authority over a geographic area.[1] It has a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter intorelations with other sovereign states.[2] It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither dependent on nor subject to any other power or state.[3] The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact.[4] Lenovo Thinkpad T410I Laptop Keyboard

While according to the declaratory theory of state recognition a sovereign state can exist without beingrecognised by other sovereign states, unrecognised states will often find it hard to exercise full treaty-making powers and engage in diplomatic relations with other sovereign states.

The word "country" is often colloquially used to refer to sovereign states, although it means, originally, only ageographic region, and subsequently its meaning became extended to the sovereign polity which controls the geographic region. ASUS A6700L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of nation-state sovereignty based on territoriality and the absence of a role for external agents in domestic structures. It is an international system of states, multinational corporations, and organizations that began with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused.[5] Toshiba Satellite L655D-S5055 Laptop

Up until the 19th century, the radicalised concept of a "standard of civilisation" was routinely deployed to determine that certain peoples in the world were "uncivilised", and lacking organised societies. That position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their "sovereignty" was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of "civilised" people."[6] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

Lassa Oppenheim said "There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is an indisputable fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon."[7] In the opinion ofH. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia "sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all." [8] HP 636191-001 Laptop Keyboard

Sovereignty has taken on a different meaning with the development of the principle of self-determination and the prohibition against the threat or use of force as jus cogens norms of modern international law. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

The United Nations Charter, the Declaration on Rights and Duties of States, and the charters of regional international organisations express the view that all states are juridically equal and enjoy the same rights and duties based upon the mere fact of their existence as persons under international law.[9][10] The right of nations to determine their own political status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognised.[11][12][13] SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard

In political science, sovereignty is usually defined as the most essential attribute of the state in the form of its complete self-sufficiency in the frames of a certain territory, that is its supremacy in the domestic policy and independence in the foreign one.[14]

In casual usage, the terms "country", "nation", and "state" are often used as if they were synonymous; but in a more strict usage they can be distinguished:[citation needed] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state.[15] Recognition can be either express or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It doesn't necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations.

There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal.[16] L.C. Green cited the recognition of the unborn Polish and Czech states in World War I and explained that "since recognition of statehood is a matter of discretion, it is open to any existing State to accept as a state any entity it wishes, regardless of the existence of territory or of an established government."[17]

TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard

This theory of recognition was developed in the 19th century. Under it, a state was sovereign if another sovereign state recognized it as such. Because of this, new states could not immediately become part of the international community or be bound by international law, and recognized nations did not have to respect international law in their dealings with them.[19] HP Pavilion tx2650eg laptop keyboard

In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna the Final Act recognised only 39 sovereign states in the European diplomatic system, and as a result it was firmly established that in future new states would have to be recognized by other states, and that meant in practice recognition by one or more of the great powers.[20] HP 6730S laptop keyboard

One of the major criticisms of this law is the confusion caused when some states recognize a new entity, but other states do not. Hersch Lauterpacht, one of the theory's main proponents, suggested that it is a state's duty to grant recognition as a possible solution. However, a state may use any criteria when judging if they should give recognition and they have no obligation to use such criteria. Many states may only recognize another state if it is to their advantage.[19]

In 1912, L. F. L. Oppenheim had the following to say on constitutive theory: ACER Aspire 9411awsmi ms2195 laptop keyboard

By contrast, the "declarative" theory defines a state as a person in international law if it meets the following criteria: 1) a defined territory; 2) a permanent population; 3) a government and 4) a capacity to enter into relations with other states. According to declarative theory, an entity's statehood is independent of its recognition by other states. The declarative model was most famously expressed in the 1933 Montevideo Convention. Compaq Presario CQ42-219AX laptop keyboard

Article 3 of the Montevideo Convention declares that statehood is independent of recognition by other states. In contrast, recognition is considered a requirement for statehood by the constitutive theory of statehood. HP Mini 311-1000NR laptop keyboard

A similar opinion about "the conditions on which an entity constitutes a state" is expressed by the European Economic Community Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee, which found that a state was defined by having a territory, a population, and a political authority.

Most sovereign states are states de jure and de facto (i.e.  Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-S5067 laptop keyboard

However, sometimes states exist only as de jure states in that an organisation is recognised as having sovereignty over and being the legitimate government of a territory over which they have no actual control. Many continental European states maintained governments-in-exile during the Second World War which continued to enjoy diplomatic relations with the Allies, notwithstanding that their countries were under Nazi occupation. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The State of Palestine, which is recognized by multiple states doesn't have control over any of its claimed territory in Palestine[26][40] and possess only extraterritorial areas (i.e. embassies and consulates). Other states may have sovereignty over a territory but lack international recognition; these are considered by the international community to be only de facto states (they are considered de jure states only according to their own Law and by states that recognize them). Somaliland is commonly considered to be such a state.[41][42][43][44]  HP G71-449WM laptop keyboard

For a list of entities that wish to be universally recognized as sovereign states, but do not have complete worldwide diplomatic recognition, see the list of states with limited recognition. The League of Arab States (Arabic: جامعة الدول العربية‎ Jāmiʻat ad-Duwal al-ʻArabiyya), commonly called the Arab League (Arabic: الجامعة العربية‎ al-Jāmiʻa al-ʻArabiyya), is a regional organization of Arab states in and aroundNorth Africa and Southwest Asia. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Egypt, Iraq,Transjordan (renamed Jordan in 1949), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Syria. Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945. Currently, the League has 22 members, although Syria's participation has been suspended since November 2011 as a consequence of government repression during the ongoing uprising and civil war.[2] TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2804 laptop keyboard

The League's main goal is to "draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries".[3] TOSHIBA Satellite C655-SP6007L laptop keyboard

Through institutions such as the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and the Economic and Social Council of the Arab League's Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the Arab League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific and social programs designed to promote the interests of the Arab world.[4][5] HP Pavilion dv6-3034nr laptop keyboard

It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate their policy positions, to deliberate on matters of common concern, to settle some Arab disputes, and to limit conflicts such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis. The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter which sets out the principles for economic activities in the region. SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard

Each member state has only one vote in the League Council, while decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them. The aims of the league in 1945 were to strengthen and coordinate the political, cultural, economic, and social programs of its members, and to mediate disputes among them or between them and third parties. FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 Laptop Keyboard

Furthermore, the signing of an agreement on Joint Defense and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defense measures. In the early 1970s, the Economic Council of the League of Arab States put forward a proposal to create the Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across the European states. This led, under the decree of the League of Arab States no. K1175/D52/G, HP 594706-001 Laptop Keyboard

to the decision by the Arab governments to set up the Arab British Chamber of Commerce which was mandated to: “promote, encourage and facilitate bilateral trade” between the Arab world and its major trading partner, the United Kingdom. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The Arab League has also played a role in shaping school curricula, advancing the role of women in the Arab societies, promoting child welfare, encouraging youth and sports programs, preserving Arab cultural heritage, and fostering cultural exchanges between the member states. HP Pavilion dv6-2044ca Laptop Keyboard

 [citation needed] Literacy campaigns have been launched, intellectual works reproduced, and modern technical terminology is translated for the use within member states. The league encourages measures against crime and drug abuse, and deals with labour issues — particularly among the emigrant Arab workforce. DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

Following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. It aimed to be a regional organisation of Arab states with a focus to developing the economy, resolving disputes, and coordinating political aims.[6] Other countries joined the league at later dates.[7] SAMSUNG X20 Laptop Keyboard

Each country was given one vote in the council. The first major action was the joint intervention, allegedly on behalf of the majority Arab population that was being uprooted as the State of Israel emerged in 1948 (and in response to popular outcry in the Arab world), although in fact a main participant in this intervention, Transjordan, had agreed with the Israelis to divide up the Arab Palestinian state proposed by the UN General Assembly, SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

while Egypt intervened primarily to prevent its rival in Amman from accomplishing its objective.[8] This was followed by the creation of a mutual defense treaty two years later. A common market was established in 1965.[6] (Robert W. MacDonald, The League of Arab States: A Study in Regional Organization. Princeton, New Jersey, USA, Princeton University Press, 1965.) SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard

The Arab League was founded in Cairo in 1945 by seven countries, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Transjordan(Jordan from 1946), and Yemen. There was a continual increase in membership during the second half of the 20th century, with additional 15 Arab States being admitted, with a current total of 21 member States due to Syria's suspension following the 2011 uprising. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

On 22 February 2011, following the start of the Libyan civil war and the use of military force against civilians, the Arab League Secretary-General, Amr Moussa, stated that Libya's membership in the Arab League had been suspended: "the organisation has decided to halt the participation of the Libyan delegations from all Arab League sessions".[9] This makes Libya the second country in the League's history to have a frozen membership. COMPAQ Presario C500 Laptop Keyboard

Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi declared that the League was illegitimate, saying: "The Arab League is finished. There is no such thing as the Arab League."[10][11] On 25 August 2011, Secretary-General Nabil Elaraby announced it was "about time" Libya's full member status was restored. The National Transitional Council, the partially recognised interim government of Libya, will send a representative to be seated at the Arab League meeting on 17 August to participate in a discussion as to whether to readmit Libya to the organisation.[12] HP Pavilion dv4-1220us Laptop Keyboard

The Arab Parliament recommended the suspension of member states Syria and Yemen on 20 September 2011, over persistent reports of disproportionate violence against regime opponents and activists during the Arab Spring.[13] A vote on 12 November agreed to formally suspend Syria four days after the vote, giving Assad a last chance to avoid suspension. Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen voted against the motion, TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

while Iraq abstained.[14] A wave of criticism rose as the Arab League sent in December 2011 a commission "monitoring" violence on people protesting against the regime. The commission was headed by Mohammad Ahmed Mustafa al-Dabi, who served as head of Omar al-Bashir's military intelligence, while war crimes including genocide were allegedly committed on his watch.[15][16][17] On 6 March 2013, the Arab League granted the Syrian National CoalitionSyria's seat in the Arab League.[citation needed] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

The Charter of the Arab League[3] endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland while respecting the sovereignty of the individual member states. The internal regulations of the Council of the League[18] and the committees[19] were agreed in October 1951. Those of the Secretariat-General were agreed in May 1953.[20] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

Since then, governance of the Arab League has been based on the duality of supra-national institutions and the sovereignty of the member states. Preservation of individual statehood derived its strengths from the natural preference of ruling elites to maintain their power and independence in decision making. Moreover, SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

the fear of the richer that the poorer may share their wealth in the name of Arab nationalism, the feuds among Arab rulers, and the influence of external powers that might oppose Arab unity can be seen as obstacles towards a deeper integration of the league. SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard

Mindful of their previous announcements in support of the Arabs of Palestine the framers of the Pact were determined to include them within the League from its inauguration.[21] This was done by means of an annex that declared:[3] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

 At the Cairo Summit of 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organisation representing the Palestinian people. The first Palestinian National Council convened in East Jerusalem on 29 May 1964. The Palestinian Liberation Organization was founded during this meeting on 2 June 1964. Today, Palestine is a full member of the Arab League and is represented by the Palestine Liberation Organization. Compaq Presario CQ71-420ED laptop keyboard

At the Beirut Summit on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative,[22] a Saudi-inspired peace plan for the Arab–Israeli conflict. The initiative offered full normalisation of the relations with Israel. In exchange, Israel was required to withdraw from all occupied territories, including theGolan Heights, SONY VAIO VGN-CR220E laptop keyboard

to recognise Palestinian independence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, with East Jerusalem as its capital, as well as a "just solution" for thePalestinian refugees. The Peace Initiative was again endorsed at 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. In July 2007, the Arab League sent a mission, consisting of theJordanian and Egyptian foreign ministers, HP Pavilion dv6-3045eo laptop keyboard

to Israel to promote the initiative. Following Venezuela's move to expel Israeli diplomats amid the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, Kuwaiti member of parliament Waleed al-Tabtabai proposed moving Arab League headquarters to Caracas, Venezuela.[23] On 13 June 2010, Amr Mohammed Moussa, Secretary-General of the Arab League, visited the Gaza Strip, the first visit by an official of the Arab League since Hamas' armed takeover in 2007. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E525 laptop keyboard

The Arab League is rich in resources, with enormous oil and natural gas resources in certain member states. Another industry that is growing steadily in the Arab League is telecommunications. Within less than a decade, local companies such as Orascom and Etisalat have managed to compete internationally. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Economic achievements initiated by the League amongst member states have been less impressive than those achieved by smaller Arab organisations such as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).[25] Among them is the Arab Gas Pipeline, that will transport Egyptian and Iraqi gas to Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, HP Mini 210-1110SB laptop keyboard

and Turkey. Significant difference in wealth and economic conditions exist between the rich oil states of the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, and Algeria, and poor countries like the Comoros,Mauritania, and Djibouti. The Arab League agreed to support the Sudanese region of Darfur with US$500 million. SAMSUNG NP-Q320-AS01UK laptop keyboard

Portugal ( i/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/, POR-tshoo-gəl; Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa), is a country located in Southwestern Europe, on the Iberian Peninsula. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east. Apart from continental Portugal, HP Pavilion G4-1016TX LQ368PA laptop keyboard

the Portuguese Republic holds sovereignty over the Atlantic archipelagos of Azores and Madeira, which are autonomous regions of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.[8] TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5075 laptop keyboard

The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously fought over and settled sinceprehistoric times. After a period of Roman rule followed by Visigothic and Suebian domination, in the 8th centurymost of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, SONY Vaio VGN-FW390 laptop keyboard

who were later expelled by theKnights Templar. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom fromGalicia in 1139.[9] In the 15th and 16th centuries, as the result of pioneering the Age of Discovery, Portugal expanded western influence and established the first global empire,[10] becoming one of the world's major economic, political and military powers. TOSHIBA Satellite L200 laptop keyboard

The Portuguese Empire was the longest-lived of the modern European colonial empires, spanning almost 600 years, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Macau in 1999 and granting of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002. The empire spread throughout a vast number of territories that are now part of 53 different sovereign states. Portugal's international status was greatly reduced during the 19th century, HP Pavilion DV6-6B00 laptop keyboard

especially following the Independence of Brazil, its largest colony. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstablePortuguese First Republic was established, itself being superseded by the "Estado Novo" authoritarian regime. Democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974.

SAMSUNG NP-Q320-AS01UK laptop keyboard

 [12] It is one of the world's most globalizedand peaceful nations:[13] a member of the European Union and the United Nations, and a founding member of the Latin Union, the Organization of Ibero-American States, OECD, NATO, the Community ofHP Pavilion dv5-1174ca laptop keyboard

Portuguese Language Countries, theeurozone and the Schengen Agreement.

The region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula.[15] These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, did establish organized societies. Neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and pluvial or marine fishing.[15] SONY VAIO PCG-FR33/B laptop keyboard

Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from central Europeand inter-married with the local populations, forming different ethnic groups, with many tribes.

Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, and the Cynetes or Conii of the Algarve. Among the lesser tribes or sub-divisions were the Bracari, DELL Vostro 1014 laptop keyboard

Coelerni, Equaesi,Grovii, Interamici, Leuni, Luanqui, Limici, Narbasi, Nemetati, Paesuri, Quaquerni, Seurbi, Tamagani, Tapoli, Turduli, Turduli Veteres,Turdulorum Oppida, Turodi, and Zoelae.

There were in the southern part of the country, some small, semi-permanent commercial coastal settlements founded byPhoenicians-Carthaginians (such as Tavira, in the Algarve). DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

 Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC. By 19 BC, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. TheCarthaginians, Rome's adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies. APPLE A1181 Laptop Keyboard

The Roman conquest of what is now part of modern day Portugal took almost two hundred years and took many lives of young soldiers and the lives of those who were sentenced to a quick death in the slavery mines when not sold as slaves to other parts of the empire. It suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north. The Lusitanians and other native tribes, under the leadership of Viriathus, wrested control of all of western Iberia.  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Rome sent numerous legions and its best generals to Lusitania to quell the rebellion, but to no avail — the Lusitanians kept conquering territory. The Roman leaders decided to change their strategy. They bribed Viriathus's allies to kill him. In 139 BC, Viriathus was assassinated, and Tautalus became leader.

Rome installed a colonial regime. The complete Romanization of Lusitania only took place in the Visigothic era. GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard

In 27 BC, Lusitania gained the status of Roman province, the Lusitanians lost their freedom and became oppressed. Later, a northern province of Lusitania was formed, known as Gallaecia, with capital in Bracara Augusta, today's Braga. There are still many ruins of castros (Hill fort) all over modern Portugal and remains of Castro culture. ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard

Numerous Roman sites are scattered around present-day Portugal, some urban remains are quite large, like Conimbriga and Mirobriga. Several works of engineering, such as baths, temples, bridges, roads, circus, theatres and layman's homes are preserved throughout the country. Coins, some of which coined in Lusitanian land, SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

as well as numerous pieces of ceramics were also found. Contemporary historians include Paulus Orosius (c. 375–418)[16] and Hydatius (c. 400–469), bishop of Aquae Flaviae, who reported on the final years of the roman rule and arrival of the Germanic tribes. DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

A significant part of the land was part of the Caliphate for approximately five and a half centuries, following the Umayyad Caliphate conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 711 until 1249 with the conquest of Algarve by King Afonso III of Portugal during the Reconquista. Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

After beating the Visigoths in only a few months, the Umayyad Caliphate started expanding rapidly in the peninsula. Beginning in 711, the land that is now Portugal became part of the vast Umayyad Caliphate's empire of Damascus that stretched from the Indusriver in India up to the South of France until its collapse in 750, a year in which the west of the empire gained its independence under Abd-ar-Rahman I with the creation of the Emirate of Córdoba. Compaq Presario CQ56-187SL laptop keyboard

After almost two centuries, the Emirate turned into the Caliphate of Córdoba in 929 until its dissolution a century later in 1031 to no less than 23 small kingdoms, calledTaifa kingdoms.

The governors of the taifas proclaimed themselves each Emir of his province and established diplomatic relations with the Christian Kingdoms of the north. Compaq Presario CQ71-101XX laptop keyboard

Most of Portugal fell into the hands of the Taifa of Badajoz of the Aftasid Dynasty, and after a short spell of an ephemera taifa of Lisbon in 1022, fell within the dominion of the Taifa of Seville of the Abbadids poets. The Taifa period ended with the conquest of the Almoravids that came from Morocco in 1086 with a decisive victory in the Battle of Sagrajas followed one century later by the Almohads also coming from Marrakesh in 1147 after the second period of Taifa.[17] SONY VAIO VGN-FS920 laptop keyboard

Al-Andalus was divided into different districts called Kura. Gharb Al-Andalus at its largest was constituted of ten kuras,[18]each with a distinct capital and governor. The main cities of the period were Beja, Silves, Alcácer do Sal, Santarém, Lisbon andCoimbra. Lenovo 3000 G230 laptop keyboard

The Muslim population of the region consisted mainly of Berbers, Arabs and native Iberian converts to Islam (the so-calledMuwallad or Muladi). The Arabs were principally noblemen coming from Yemen, though they were only few in numbers they constituted the elite of the population. The Berbers were originally from the Atlas mountains and Rif mountains of North Africa and were essentially nomads. The Muslim population (or "Moors"), few in number,[19] stayed largely in the Algarve region, and in general south of the Tagus.[19] Dell Latitude D410 laptop keyboard

After the Muslim conquests, the land between the Minho and Douro rivers maintained a significant share of its populations, between the 8th and the third quarter of the 9th century in a social and political area where there was no acting state powers.[20] In 868, this region became dynamic and was organized as the County of Portugal(Condado de Portugal,[21] a government) and appeared as part of the Galician-Asturian, Leonese and Portuguese systematic power structures.[20] ACER Aspire 1680 laptop keyboard

During the Reconquista period, Christians reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim and Moorishdomination. A victory over the Muslims at the Battle of Ourique in 1139 is traditionally taken as the occasion when the County of Portugal as a fief of the Kingdom of León was transformed into the independent Kingdom of Portugal. TOSHIBA Tecra A9-S9016X laptop keyboard

Henry, to whom the newly formed county was awarded by Alfonso VI for his role in reconquering land from the Moors, based his newly formed county in Bracara Augusta (nowadays Braga), capital city of the ancient Roman province, and also previous capital of several kingdoms over the first millennia. HP Mini 210-2006sa laptop keyboard

On 24 June 1128, the Battle of São Mamede occurred near Guimarães. Afonso Henriques, Count of Portugal, defeated his mother Countess Teresa and her lover Fernão Peres de Trava, thereby establishing himself as sole leader. Afonso then turned his arms against the persistent problem of the Moors in the south. His campaigns were successful and, on 25 July 1139, he obtained an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Ourique, and straight after was unanimously proclaimed King of Portugal by his soldiers. Lenovo 63Y0047 laptop keyboard

Afonso then established the first of the Portuguese Cortes at Lamego, where he was crowned by the Archbishop of Braga, though the validity of the Cortes of Lamego has been disputed and called a myth created during the Portuguese Restoration War. Afonso was recognized in 1143 by King Alfonso VII of León and Castile, and in 1179 by Pope Alexander III. HP Mini 110-3110sq laptop keyboard

Afonso Henriques and his successors, aided by military monastic orders, pushed southward to drive out the Moors, as the size of Portugal covered about half of its present area. In 1249, this Reconquista ended with the capture of the Algarve on the southern coast, giving Portugal its present-day borders, with minor exceptions. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

The reigns of Dinis I, Afonso IV, and Pedro I for the most part saw peace with the Christian kingdoms of Iberia, and thus the Portuguese kingdom advanced in prosperity and culture.

In 1348 and 1349, like the rest of Europe, Portugal was devastated by the Black Death.[22] In 1373, Portugal made an alliance with England, which is the longest-standing alliance in the world.

In 1383, John I of Castile, husband of Beatrice of Portugal and son-in-law of Ferdinand I of Portugal, claimed the throne of Portugal. HP G61-408CA laptop keyboard

 A faction of petty noblemen and commoners, led by John of Aviz (later King John I of Portugal) and commanded by General Nuno Álvares Pereira defeated the Castilians in the Battle of Aljubarrota. With this battle, the House of Aviz became the ruling house of Portugal.

Portugal spearheaded the exploration of the world and undertook the Age of Discovery. PrinceHenry the Navigator, son of King João I, TOSHIBA Satellite P105-S9337 laptop keyboard

became the main sponsor and patron of this endeavor. During this period, Portugal explored the Atlantic Ocean, discovering several Atlantic archipelagos like the Azores, Madeira, or Cape Verde, explored the African coast as well as colonizing selected areas of Africa, discovered an eastern route to India that rounded the Cape of Good Hope, discovered Brazil, explored the Indian Ocean and established trading routes throughout most of southern Asia, and sent the first direct European maritime trade and diplomatic missions to China and Japan. HP Pavilion ze4600 laptop keyboard

In 1415, Portugal acquired the first of its overseas colonies by conquering Ceuta. It was the first prosperous Islamic trade center in North Africa. There followed the first discoveries in the Atlantic: Madeira and the Azores, which led to the firstcolonization movements.

Throughout the 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa, Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

establishing trading posts for several common types of tradable commodities at the time, ranging from gold to slaves, as they looked for a route to India and its spices, which were coveted in Europe. HP Pavilion dv6-2162nr laptop keyboard

The Treaty of Tordesillas, intended to resolve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus, was signed on 7 June 1494, and divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa). SONY VAIO VGN-AW2XRY laptop keyboard

In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India and brought economic prosperity to Portugal and its population of 1.7 million residents, which helped start the Portuguese Renaissance.

In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.[23] Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerqueconquered Goa in India, HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

Ormuz in the Persian Strait, and Malacca, now a state in Malaysia. Thus, the Portuguese empire held dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic. The Portuguese sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia by sailing eastward from Europe landing in such places as Taiwan, Japan, and the island of Timor. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

The Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 22 April 1529 between Portugal and Spain, specified the antimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. All these facts made Portugal the world's major economic, military, and political power from the 15th century to the beginning of the 16th century. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

In 1738, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, began a diplomatic career as the Portuguese Ambassador inLondon and later in Vienna. The Queen consort of Portugal, Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa of Austria, was fond of Melo; and after his first wife died, she arranged the widowed de Melo's second marriage to the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef, Count von Daun. King John V of Portugal, however, ACER Aspire 7535 Laptop Keyboard

was not pleased and recalled Melo to Portugal in 1749. John V died the following year and his son, Joseph I of Portugal, was crowned. In contrast to his father, Joseph I was fond of de Melo, and with the Queen Mother's approval, he appointed Melo as Minister of Foreign Affairs. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

As the King's confidence in de Melo increased, the King entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755, Sebastião de Melo was made Prime Minister. Impressed by British economic success he had witnessed while Ambassador, he successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal. He abolished slavery in Portugal and in the Portuguese colonies in India; reorganized the army and the navy; restructured the University of Coimbra, and ended discrimination against different Christian sects in Portugal. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

But Sebastião de Melo's greatest reforms were economic and financial, with the creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He demarcated the region for production of Port to ensure the wine's quality, and this was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He ruled with a strong hand by imposing strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society from the high nobility to the poorest working class, along with a widespread review of the country's tax system.  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes, especially among the high nobility, who despised him as a social upstart.

Disaster fell upon Portugal in the morning of 1 November 1755, when Lisbon was struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated Richter scale magnitude of 9. The city was razed to the ground by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and ensuing fires.[28] Sebastião de Melo survived by a stroke of luck and then immediately embarked on rebuilding the city, with his famous quote: "What now? We bury the dead and take care of the living." Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

Despite the calamity and huge death toll, Lisbon suffered no epidemics and within less than one year was already being rebuilt. The new downtown of Lisbon was designed to resist subsequent earthquakes. Architectural models were built for tests, and the effects of an earthquake were simulated by marching troops around the models. HP 643263-001 Laptop Keyboard

The buildings and big squares of the Pombaline Downtown still remain as one of Lisbon's tourist attractions. Sebastião de Melo also made an important contribution to the study of seismology by designing an inquiry that was sent to every parish in the country. SONY VAIO VGN-CS170F/R Laptop Keyboard

Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more power, and Sebastião de Melo became a powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with the high nobility became frequent. In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. The Távora family and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated and executed after a quick trial. ACER TravelMate 4600 Laptop Keyboard

 The Jesuits were expelled from the country and their assets confiscated by the crown. Sebastião de Melo prosecuted every person involved, even women and children. This was the final stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy. Joseph I made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759.

In 1762, Spain invaded Portuguese territory as part of the Seven Years' War, but by 1763 the status quo between Spain and Portugal before the war had been restored. SONY VAIO VGN-FS195XP Laptop Keyboard

Following the Távora affair, the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition. Made "Marquis of Pombal" in 1770, he effectively ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1779. However, historians also argue that Pombal’s "enlightenment," while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book censorship and consolidating personal control and profit.[29] HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal, disliked the Marquis because of the power he amassed, and never forgave him for the ruthlessness at which he dispatched the Távora family, and upon her accession to the throne, she withdrew all his political offices. Pombal died on his estate at Pombal in 1782. SONY VAIO VGN-FS195XP laptop keyboard

In the autumn of 1807, Napoleon moved French troops through Spain to invade Portugal. From 1807 to 1811, British-Portuguese forces would successfully fight against the French invasion of Portugal, while the royal family and the Portuguese nobility, including Maria I, relocated to the Portuguese territory of Brazil, at that time a colony of the Portuguese Empire, in South America. This episode is known as the Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil. TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s121 laptop keyboard

With the occupation by Napoleon, Portugal began a slow but inexorable decline that lasted until the 20th century. This decline was hastened by the independence in 1822 of the country's largest colonial possession, Brazil. In 1807, as Napoleon's army closed in on Lisbon, the Prince Regent João VI of Portugal transferred his court to Brazil and established Rio de Janeiro as the capital of the Portuguese Empire. In 1815, the Portuguese Empire changed its name to the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. SONY VAIO VGN-FS830 laptop keyboard

As a result of the change in its status and the arrival of the Portuguese royal family, Brazilian administrative, civic,economical, military, educational, and scientific apparatus were expanded and highly modernized. SONY VAIO VGN-FS640P laptop keyboard

Portuguese and their allied British troops fought against the French Invasion of Portugal and by 1815 the situation in Europe had cooled down sufficiently that João VI would have been able to return safely to Lisbon. However, the King of Portugal remained in Brazil until the Liberal Revolution of 1820, which started in Porto, demanded his return to Lisbon in 1821. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

Thus he returned to Portugal but left his son Pedro in charge of Brazil. When the king attempted the following year to return the Kingdom of Brazil to subordinate status as a principality, his son Pedro, with the overwhelming support of the Brazilian elites, declared Brazil's independence from Portugal. Cisplatina (today's sovereign state of Uruguay), in the south, was one of the last additions to the territory of Brazil under Portuguese rule. Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard

At the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had already lost its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. Luanda, Benguela, Bissau, Lourenço Marques, Porto Amboim and the Island of Mozambique were among the oldest Portuguese-founded port cities in its African territories. During this phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there. SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP08 laptop keyboard

With the Conference of Berlin of 1884, Portuguese Africa territories had their borders formally established on request of Portugal in order to protect the centuries-long Portuguese interests in the continent from rivalries enticed by the Scramble for Africa. Portuguese Africa's cities and towns like Nova Lisboa, Sá da Bandeira, Silva Porto, Malanje, TTOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5153 laptop keyboard

ete, Vila Junqueiro, Vila Pery and Vila Cabral were founded or redeveloped inland during this period and beyond. New coastal towns like Beira, Moçâmedes,Lobito, João Belo, Nacala and Porto Amélia were also founded. Even before the turn of the 20th century, railway tracks as theBenguela railway in Angola, and the Beira railway in Mozambique, started to be built to link coastal areas and selected inland regions. ACER Aspire 5810TZ-4657 laptop keyboard

Other episodes during this period of the Portuguese presence in Africa include the 1890 British Ultimatum. This forced the Portuguese military to retreat from the land between the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola (most of present-dayZimbabwe and Zambia), which had been claimed by Portugal and included in its "Pink Map", which clashed with British aspirations to create a Cape to Cairo Railway. The Portuguese territories in Africa were Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Portuguese Guinea, Angola, and Mozambique. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

In addition, the country still ruled the Asian territories of Portuguese India, Portuguese Timor and Macau.

On 1 February 1908, the king Dom Carlos I of Portugal and his heir apparent, Prince Royal Dom Luís Filipe, Duke of Braganza, were murdered in Lisbon. Under his rule, Portugal had twice been declared bankrupt – on 14 June 1892, and again on 10 May 1902 – causing social turmoil, economic disturbances, protests, revolts and criticism of the monarchy. ACER Aspire AS5335-2257 laptop keyboard

Manuel II of Portugal become the new king, but was eventually overthrown by the 5 October 1910 revolution, which abolished the regime and instated republicanism in Portugal. Political instability and economic weaknesses were fertile ground for chaos and unrest during the Portuguese First Republic. These conditions would lead to the failed Monarchy of the North, the 28 May 1926 coup d'état, and the creation of the National Dictatorship (Ditadura Nacional). SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

This in turn led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo under António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. Portugal was one of only five European countries to remain neutral in World War II. From the 1940s to the 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of NATO, OECD and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). HP Pavilion DV6-1210ew laptop keyboard

Gradually, new economic development projects and relocation of mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas provinces in Africa were initiated, with Angola and Mozambique, as the largest and richest overseas territories, being the main targets of those initiatives. These actions were used to affirm Portugal's status as apluricontinental nation and not as a colonial empire. HP HDX18-1100 CTO laptop keyboard

After India attained independence in 1947, pro-Indian residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, with the support of the Indian government and the help of pro-independence organisations, separated the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli from Portuguese rule in 1954.[30] In 1961, São João Baptista de Ajudá's annexation by the Republic of Dahomey was the start of a process that led to the final dissolution of the centuries-old Portuguese Empire. ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard

According to the census of 1921 São João Baptista de Ajudá had 5 inhabitants and, at the moment of the ultimatum by the Dahomey Government, it had only 2 inhabitants representing Portuguese Sovereignty. Another forcible retreat from overseas territories occurred in December 1961 when Portugal refused to relinquish the territories of Goa, Daman and Diu. As a result, the Portuguese army and navy were involved in armed conflict in its colony of Portuguese India against the Indian Armed Forces. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

The operations resulted in the defeat of the limited Portuguese defensive garrison, which was forced to surrender to a much larger military force. The outcome was the loss of the remaining Portuguese territories in the Indian subcontinent. The Portuguese regime refused to recognize Indian sovereignty over the annexed territories, which continued to be represented in Portugal's National Assembly until the military coup of 1974. ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

Portuguese painters: Amadeo de Souza-Cardoso, who was heavily influenced by French painters, particularly by the Delaunays. Among his best known works is Canção Popular a Russa e o Fígaro. Another great modernist painter/writer was Almada Negreiros, friend to the poet Fernando Pessoa, who painted his (Pessoa's) portrait. ASUS F82Q Laptop Keyboard

SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard

He was deeply influenced by both Cubist and Futurist trends. Prominent international figures in visual arts nowadays include painters Vieira da Silva, Júlio Pomar, Helena Almeida, Joana Vasconcelos, Julião Sarmento and Paula Rego. TOSHIBA PK130260100 Laptop Keyboard

Football is the most popular sport in Portugal. There are several football competitions ranging from local amateur to world-class professional level. The legendary Eusébio is still a major symbol of Portuguese football history. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4115 Laptop Keyboard

FIFA World Player of the Year winners Luís Figo and Cristiano Ronaldo, are among the numerous examples of other world-class football (soccer) players born in Portugal and noted worldwide. Portuguese football managers are also noteworthy, with José Mourinho, André Villas-Boas,Fernando Santos, Carlos Queiroz and Manuel José among the most renowned. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

The Portuguese national football team has titles in the FIFA World Youth Championship and in the UEFA youth championships. The main national team – Selecção Nacional – finished second in Euro 2004 (held in Portugal), reached the third place in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and reached the fourth place in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, their best results in major competitions to date.

SL Benfica, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

FC Porto, and Sporting CP are the largest sports clubs by popularity and by number of trophies won, often known as "os três grandes" ("the big three"). They have 12 titles won in the European UEFA club competitions, were present in many finals and have been regular contenders in the last stages almost every season. Other than football, many Portuguese sports clubs, including the "big three", compete in several other sports events with a varying level of success and popularity, these may include roller hockey, basketball, futsal, handball, and volleyball. HP Envy 15-1021tx Laptop Keyboard

Portugal has a successful roller hockey team, with 15 world titles and 20 European titles, making it the country with the most wins in both competitions. The most successful Portuguese roller hockey clubs in the history of European championships are Futebol Clube do Porto, Sporting Clube de Portugal, Sport Lisboa e Benfica and Óquei de Barcelos. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

The Portuguese national rugby union team made a dramatic qualification into the 2007 Rugby World Cup and became the first all amateur team to qualify for the World Cup since the dawn of the professional era. The Portuguese national rugby sevens team has performed well, becoming one of the strongest teams in Europe, and proved their status as European champions in several occasions. HP Pavilion dv6-3005tx Laptop Keyboard

In athletics, the Portuguese have won a number of gold, silver and bronze medals in the European, World and Olympic Games competitions. Cycling, with Volta a Portugal being the most important race, is also a popular sports event and include professional cycling teams such as Sport Lisboa e Benfica, Boavista, Clube de Ciclismo de Tavira, and União Ciclista da Maia. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The country has also achieved notable performances in sports like fencing, judo, kitesurf, rowing, sailing, surfing, shooting, triathlon and windsurf, owning several European and world titles. The paralympic athletes have also conquered many medals in sports like swimming, boccia and wrestling. SONY VAIO VGN-CR31E Laptop Keyboard

In motorsport, Portugal is internationally noted for the Rally of Portugal, and the Estoril, Algarve Circuits and the revivedPorto Street Circuit which holds a stage of the WTCC every two years, as well as for a number of internationally noted pilots in varied motorsports. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard

In equestrian sports, Portugal won the only Horseball-Pato World Championship (in 2006), achieved the third position in the First Horseball World Cup (organized in Ponte de Lima, Portugal, in 2008), and has achieved several victories in the EuropeanWorking Equitation Championship.

In swimming sports, Portugal has two major sports: swimming and water polo. HP 383495-001 Laptop Keyboard

Northern Portugal has its own original martial art, Jogo do Pau, in which the fighters use staffs to confront one or several opponents.

Other popular sport-related recreational outdoor activities with thousands of enthusiasts nationwide include airsoft, fishing, golf, hiking, hunting and orienteering. SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain

is a small island country situated near the western shores of the Persian Gulf. It is an archipelago of 33 islands, the largest being Bahrain Island, at 55 km (34 mi) long by 18 km (11 mi) wide. Saudi Arabia lies to the west and is connected to Bahrain by the King Fahd Causeway. Iran lies 200 km (120 mi) to the north of Bahrain, SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard

across the Gulf. The peninsula of Qatar is to the southeast across the Gulf of Bahrain. The planned Qatar Bahrain Causeway will link Bahrain and Qatar and become the world's longest marine causeway.[4] The population in 2010 stood at 1,234,571, including 666,172 non-nationals.[1] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain is believed to be the site of the ancient land of the Dilmun civilisation. Bahrain came under the rule of successive Persian empires, the Parthians and Sassanids empires respectively. Bahrain was one of the earliest areas to convert to Islam in 628 AD. Following a successive period of Arab rule, the country was occupied by thePortuguese in 1521. The Portuguese were later expelled, in 1602, by Shah Abbas I of the Safavid empire. COMPAQ Presario C500 Laptop Keyboard

In 1783, theBani Utbah tribe captured Bahrain from the Persians and was ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family since, with Ahmed al Fateh being the first hakim of Bahrain. In the late 1800s, following successive treaties with the British, HP Pavilion dv4-1220us Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain became a protectorate of the United Kingdom. Following the withdrawal of the British from the region in the late 1960s, Bahrain declared independence in 1971. Formerly a state, Bahrain was declared a kingdom in 2002. Since early 2011, the country has experienced sustained protests and unrest inspired by the regional Arab Spring.[5] TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain today has a high Human Development Index (48th highest in the world) and the World Bank identified it as ahigh income economy. Bahrain is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organisation, the Arab League, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of the Islamic Conference as well as being a founding member of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf.[6] Bahrain was also designated as a major non-NATO ally by the George W. Bush administration in 2001.[7] FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

Oil was discovered in Bahrain in 1932 (the first in the Arabian side of the Gulf). In recent decades, Bahrain has sought to diversify its economy and be less dependent on oil by investing in the banking sector and tourism.[8] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

The country's capital, Manama, is home to many large financial structures, including the Bahrain World Trade Center and the Bahrain Financial Harbour. The Qal'at al-Bahrain (the harbour and capital of the ancient land of Dilmun) and theBahrain pearling trail were declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2005 and 2012, respectively.[9][10] The Bahrain Formula One Grand Prix takes place at the Bahrain International Circuit.[11] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

In Arabic, Bahrayn is the dual form of bahr ("sea"), so al-Bahrayn means "the Two Seas". However, which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute.[12] The term appears five times in the Qur'an, but does not refer to the modern island—originally known to the Arabs as Awal—but rather to the oases of al-Katif and Hadjar (modern al-Hasa).[12] It is unclear when the term began to refer exclusively to the Awal islands, but it was probably after the 15th century. SAMSUNG Q320 Laptop Keyboard

Today, al-Hasa belongs to Saudi Arabia and Bahrain's "two seas" are instead generally taken to be the bay east and west of the island,[13] the seas north and south of the island,[14] or the salt and fresh water present above and below the ground.[15] In addition to wells, there are places in the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the salt water, noted by visitors since antiquity.[16] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

An alternate theory offered by al-Ahsa was that the two seas were the Great Green Ocean and a peaceful lake on the Arabian mainland; still another provided by al-Jawahari is that the more formal name Bahri (lit. "belonging to the sea") would have been misunderstood and so was opted against.[15] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

Until the late Middle Ages, "Bahrain" referred to the larger historical region of Bahrain that included Al-Ahsa, Al-Qatif (both now within the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia) and the Awal Islands (now the Bahrain Islands). The region stretched from Basra in Iraq to the Strait of Hormuz in Oman. This was Iqlīm al-Bahrayn's "Bahrayn Province". The exact date at which the term "Bahrain" began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown.[17] HP 636191-001 Laptop Keyboard

Inhabited since ancient times, Bahrain occupies a strategic location in the Persian Gulf. It is the best natural port between the mouth of the Tigris, Euphrates Rivers and Oman, a source of copper in ancient times. Bahrain may have been associated with the Dilmun civilisation, an important Bronze Age trade centre linking Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley.[18] It was later ruled by the Assyrians and Babylonians.[19] It came under the control of Persians,[20] and then Arabs, under whom the island first became Nestorian Christian and then Islamic. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

From the 6th to 3rd century BC, Bahrain was added to the Persian Empire by the Achaemenian dynasty. By about 250 BC, theParthians brought the Persian Gulf under its control and extended its influence as far as Oman. During the classical era, the island's Hellenic name was Tylos, named when Nearchus discovered it while serving under Alexander the Great duringAlexander's Asia campaign.[21] SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard

In order to control trade routes, the Parthians established garrisons along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf.[22] In the 3rd century AD, Ardashir I, the first ruler of the Sassanid dynasty, marched on Oman and Bahrain, where he defeated Sanatruq the ruler of Bahrain.[23] At this time, Bahrain comprised the southern Sassanid province along with the Persian Gulf's southern shore.[24] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

The Sassanid Empire divided their southern province into the three districts of Haggar (now al-Hafuf province in Saudi Arabia), Batan Ardashir (now al-Qatif province in Saudi Arabia) and Mishmahig (which in Middle-Persian/Pahlavi means "ewe-fish") which is present-day Bahrain.[23] Early Islamic sources describe the country as inhabited by members of the Abdul Qais, Tamim, and Bakr tribes who worshipped the idol Awal,[25] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

from which the Arabs named the island of Bahrain Awalfor many centuries.[25] However, Bahrain was also a center of Nestorian Christianity, including two of its bishoprics.[23]

Traditional Islamic accounts state that Al-ʿAlāʾ Al-Haḍrami was sent as an envoy to the Bahrain region by the prophetMuhammad in 628 AD and that Munzir ibn-Sawa al-Tamimi, the local ruler, responded to his mission and converted the entire area.[26][27] TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard

In 899 AD, the Qarmatians, a millenarian Ismaili Muslim sect seized Bahrain, seeking to create a utopian society based on reason and redistribution of property among initiates. Thereafter, the Qarmatians demanded tribute from the caliph inBaghdad, and in 930 AD sacked Mecca and Medina, bringing the sacred Black Stone back to their base in Ahsa, in medieval Bahrain, for ransom. According to historian Al-Juwayni, TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5075 laptop keyboard

the stone was returned 22 years later in 951 under mysterious circumstances. Wrapped in a sack, it was thrown into the Great Mosque of Kufa in Iraq, accompanied by a note saying "By command we took it, and by command we have brought it back." The theft and removal of the Black Stone caused it to break into seven pieces.[23][28][29] HP Pavilion G4-1016TX LQ368PA laptop keyboard

Following a 976 AD defeat by the Abbasids,[30] the Qarmations were overthrown by the Arab Uyunid dynasty of al-Hasa, who took over the entire Bahrain region in 1076.[31] The Uyunids controlled Bahrain until 1235, SONY Vaio VGN-FW390 laptop keyboard

when the archipelago was briefly occupied by the Persian ruler of Fars. In 1253, the Bedouin Usfurids brought down the Uyunid dynasty, thereby gaining control over eastern Arabia, including the islands of Bahrain. In 1330, the archipelago became a tributary state of the rulers of Hormuz,[17] though locally the islands were controlled by the Shi'ite Jarwanid dynasty of Qatif.[32] In the mid-15th century, the archipelago came under the rule of the Jabrids, a Bedouin dynasty also based in Al-Ahsa that ruled most of eastern Arabia. TOSHIBA Satellite L200 laptop keyboard

In 1521, the Portuguese allied with Hormuz and seized Bahrain from the Jabrid ruler Migrin ibn Zamil, who was killed during the takeover. Portuguese rule lasted for around 80 years, during which time they depended mainly on Sunni Persian governors.[17] The Portuguese were expelled from the islands in 1602 by Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty of Persia,[33] which gave impetus to Shia Islam.[34] For the next two centuries, HP Pavilion DV6-6B00 laptop keyboard

Persian rulers retained control of the archipelago, interrupted by the 1717 and 1738 invasions of the Ibadhis of Oman.[35] During most of this period, they resorted to governing Bahrain indirectly, either through the city of Bushehr or through immigrant Sunni Arab clans. The latter were tribes returning to the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf from Persian territories in the north who were known as Huwala (literally: SAMSUNG NP-Q320-AS01UK laptop keyboard

those that have changed or moved).[17][36][37] In 1753, the Huwala clan of Nasr Al-Madhkur invaded Bahrain on behalf of the Iranian Zand leader Karim Khan Zand and restored direct Iranian rule.[37] HP Pavilion dv5-1174ca laptop keyboard

In 1783, Nasr Al-Madhkur, ruler of Bahrain and Bushire, lost the islands of Bahrain following his defeat by the Bani Utbah tribe at the 1782 Battle of Zubarah. Bahrain was not new territory to the Bani Utbah; they had been a presence there since the 17th century.[38] During that time, they started purchasing date palm gardens in Bahrain; a document shows that 81 years before arrival of the Al-Khalifa, one of the shaikhs of the Al Bin Ali tribe (an offshoot of the Bani Utbah) had bought a palm garden in Sitra island.[39] SONY VAIO PCG-FR33/B laptop keyboard

The Al Bin Ali were the dominant group controlling the town of Zubarah on the Qatar peninsula,[40][41] originally the center of power of the Bani Utbah. After the Bani Utbah gained control of Bahrain, the Al Bin Ali had a practically independent status there as a self-governing tribe. They used a flag with four red and three white stripes, DELL Vostro 1014 laptop keyboard

called the Al-Sulami flag[42] in Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, and the Eastern province of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Later, different Arab family clans and tribes from Qatar moved to Bahrain to settle after the fall of Nasr Al-Madhkur of Bushehr. These families and tribes included the Al Khalifa, Al-Ma'awdah, Al-Fadhil, Al-Mannai, Al-Noaimi, Al-Sulaiti, Al-Sadah, Al-Thawadi, and other families and tribes.[43] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

The Al Khalifa family moved to Bahrain in 1797. Originally, they lived in Umm Qasr where they preyed on the caravans of Basra and pirated ships in the Shatt al-Arab waterway until Turks expelled them to Kuwait where they remained until 1766.[44] In the early 19th century, Bahrain was invaded by both the Omanis and theAl Sauds. SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard

In 1802 it was governed by a twelve-year-old child, when the Omani ruler Sayyid Sultan installed his son, Salim, as Governor in the Arad Fort.[45] In 1820, the Al Khalifa tribe were recognised by Great Britain as the rulers ("Al-Hakim" in Arabic) of Bahrain after signing a treaty relationship.[46] However, ten years later they were forced to pay yearly tributes to Egypt despite seeking Persian and British protection.[47] In 1860, FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 Laptop Keyboard

the Al Khalifas used the same tactic when the British tried to overpower Bahrain. Writing letters to the Persians and Ottomans, Al Khalifas agreed to place Bahrain under the latter's protection in March due to offering better conditions. Eventually the Government of British India overpowered Bahrain when the Persians refused to protect it. Colonel Pelly signed a new treaty with Al Khalifas placing Bahrain under British rule and protection.[47] HP 594706-001 Laptop Keyboard

Following the Qatari–Bahraini War in 1868, British representatives signed another agreement with the Al Khalifas. It specified that the ruler could not dispose of any of his territory except to the United Kingdom and could not enter into relationships with any foreign government without British consent.[48][49] In return the British promised to protect Bahrain from all aggression by sea and to lend support in case of land attack.[49] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

More importantly the British promised to support the rule of the Al Khalifa in Bahrain, securing its unstable position as rulers of the country. Other agreements in 1880 and 1892 sealed the protectorate status of Bahrain to the British.[49] HP Pavilion dv6-2044ca Laptop Keyboard

Unrest amongst the people of Bahrain began when Britain officially established complete dominance over the territory in 1892. The first revolt and widespread uprising took place in March 1895 against Sheikh Issa bin Ali, then ruler of Bahrain.[50] Sheikh Issa was the first of the Al Khalifa to rule without Persian relations. DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

 [50] The uprising developed further with some protesters killed by British forces.[50]

Early 20th Century reforms SAMSUNG X20 Laptop Keyboard

In 1911, a group of Bahraini merchants demanded restrictions on the British influence in the country. The group's leaders were subsequently arrested and exiled to India. In 1923, the British replaced Sheikh Issa bin Ali with his son. Some clerical opponents and families such as al Dossari left or were exiled to Saudi Arabia and Iran.[51] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

 Three years later the British placed the country under the de facto rule of Charles Belgrave who operated as an adviser to the ruler until 1957.[52][53] Belgrave brought a number of reforms such as establishment of the country's first modern school in 1919, the Persian Gulf's first girls school in 1928 and the abolition of slavery.[54] At the same time, the pearl diving industry developed at a rapid pace. SONY VAIO VGN-FS920 laptop keyboard

In 1927, Rezā Shāh, then Shah of Iran, demanded the return of Bahrain in a letter to the League of Nations. A move that prompted Belgrave to undertake harsh measures including encouraging conflicts between Shia and Sunni Muslims in order to bring down the uprisings and limit the Iranian influence.[55] Lenovo 3000 G230 laptop keyboard

Belgrave even went further by suggesting to rename the Persian Gulf to the "Arabian Gulf"; however, the proposal was refused by the British government. Dell Latitude D410 laptop keyboard

Discovery of petroleum and WWII

The Bahrain Petroleum Company (Bapco), a subsidiary of the Standard Oil Company of California (Socal),[56] discovered oil in 1931 and production began the following year. This was to bring rapid modernisation to Bahrain. Relations with the United Kingdom became closer, as evidenced by the British Royal Navy moving its entire Middle Eastern command from Bushehr in Iran to Bahrain in 1935.[57][self-published source?] ACER Aspire 1680 laptop keyboard

Bahrain participated in the Second World War on the Allied side, joining on 10 September 1939. On 19 October 1940, four Italian SM.82s bombers bombed Bahrainalongside Dhahran oilfields in Saudi Arabia,[58] targeting Allied-operated oil refineries.[59] Although minimal damage was caused in both locations, the attack forced the Allies to upgrade Bahrain's defences, an action which further stretched Allied military resources.[59] TOSHIBA Tecra A9-S9016X laptop keyboard

After World War II, increasing anti-British sentiment spread throughout the Arab World and led to riots in Bahrain. The riots focused on the Jewish community.[60] In 1948, following rising hostilities and looting,[61] most members of Bahrain's Jewish community abandoned their properties and evacuated toBombay, HP Mini 210-2006sa laptop keyboard

later settling in Israel (Pardes Hanna-Karkur) and the United Kingdom. As of 2008, 37 Jews remained in the country.[61] In 2008, Bahrain's king appealed to former-Bahraini Jews abroad in the US and UK to return to the country and had also offered compensation and citizenship.[60]

Lenovo 63Y0047 laptop keyboard

In 1965 a month-long uprising broke out after hundreds of workers at the Bahrain Petroleum Company were laid off.[62]

Drop of Iranian claim HP Mini 110-3110sq laptop keyboard

Iran's parliament passed a bill in November 1957 declaring Bahrain to be the 14th province of Iran,[63] with two empty seats allocated for its representatives. This action caused numerous problems for Iran in its international relations, especially with some United Nations bodies, Britain, Saudi Arabia, and a number of Arab countries.[55] HP G61-408CA laptop keyboard

At this time, Britain set out to change the demographics of Bahrain. The British policy of "Deiranisation" of the country consisted of importing large numbers of different Arabs as well as other ethnic groups from the British colonies to work as labourers.[55] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

In 1965, Britain began dialogue with Iran to determine their borders in the Persian Gulf. Before long extensive differences over borders and territory came to light, including the dispute over the dominion of Bahrain. The two were not able to determine the maritime borders between the northern and southern countries of the Persian Gulf.[64] Eventually Iran and Britain agreed to put the matter of Dominion of Bahrain to international judgment and requested the United Nations General Secretary take on this responsibility.[65][66] Compaq Presario CQ71-420ED laptop keyboard

Iran pressed hard for a referendum in Bahrain in the face of strong opposition from both the British and the Bahraini leaders.[55] Their opposition was based on Al Khalifa's view that such a move would negate 150 years of their clan's rule in the country. In the end, as an alternative to the referendum, Iran and Britain agreed to request the United Nations conduct a survey in Bahrain that would determine the political future of the territory. SONY VAIO VGN-CR220E laptop keyboard

Report no. 9772 was submitted to the UN General Secretary and on 11 May 1970, the United Nations Security Council endorsed Winspeare's conclusion that an overwhelming majority of the people wished recognition of Bahrain's identity as a fully independent and sovereign state free to decide its own relations with other states.[67] Both Britain and Iran accepted the report and brought their dispute to a close.[68] HP Pavilion dv6-3045eo laptop keyboard

Independence

On 15 August 1971, Bahrain declared independence and signed a new treaty of friendship with the United Kingdom. Bahrain joined the United Nations and the Arab League later in the year. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E525 laptop keyboard

The country had already begun diversification of its economy and benefited further from Lebanese Civil War in the 1970s and 1980s, when Bahrain replaced Beirut as the Middle East's financial hub after Lebanon's large banking sector was driven out of the country by the war.[70] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Following the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, in 1981 Bahraini Shī'a fundamentalists orchestrated a failed coup attempt under the auspices of a front organisation, the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain. The coup would have installed a Shī'a cleric exiled in Iran, Hujjatu l-Islām Hādī al-Mudarrisī, as supreme leader heading a theocratic government.[71] In December 1994, a group of youths threw stones at female runners during an international marathon for running bare-legged. The resulting clash with police soon grew into civil unrest.[72][73] HP Mini 210-1110SB laptop keyboard

A popular uprising occurred between 1994 and 2000 in which leftists, liberals and Islamists joined forces.[74] The event resulted in approximately forty deaths and ended after Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa became the Emir of Bahrain in 1999.[75] A referendum on 14–15 February 2001 massively supported the National Action Charter.[76] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-AS01UK laptop keyboard

 He instituted elections for parliament, gave women the right to vote, and released all political prisoners.[77] As part of the adoption of the National Action Charter on 14 February 2002, Bahrain changed its formal name from the State (dawla) of Bahrain to the Kingdom of Bahrain.[78] ACER Aspire 7535 Laptop Keyboard

The country participated in military action against the Taliban in October 2001 by deploying a frigate in the Arabian Sea for rescue and humanitarian operations.[79] As a result, in November of that year, US president George W. Bush's administration designated Bahrain as a "major non-NATO ally".[79] Bahrain opposed the invasion of Iraq and had offered Saddam Hussein asylum in the days prior to the invasion.[79] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Relations improved with neighbouring Qatar after the border dispute over the Hawar Islands was resolved by the International Court of Justice in The Hague in 2001. Following the political liberalisation of the country, Bahrain negotiated a free trade agreement with the United States in 2004.[80] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Bahraini uprising

Main article: Bahraini uprising (2011–present)

Inspired by the regional Arab Spring, large protests started in Bahrain in early 2011.[81][82]:162–3 The government initially allowed protests following a pre-dawn raid on protesters camped in Pearl Roundabout.[82]:73–4,  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

88 A month later it requested security assistance from Saudi Arabia and other GCC countries and declared a three-month state of emergency.[82]:132–9 The government then launched a crackdown on opposition that included conducting thousands of arrests.[83][84][85][86][87] Almost daily clashes between protesters and security forces led to dozens of deaths.[88] Protests, sometimes staged by opposition parties, are ongoing.[89][90][91][92][93] Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

rising gently to a low central escarpment with the highest point the 134 m (440 ft)Mountain of Smoke (Jabal ad Dukhan).[94][95] Bahrain had a total area of 665 km2(257 sq mi) but due to land reclamation, the area increased to 767 km2 (296 sq mi), which is slightly larger than the Isle of Man.[95] HP 643263-001 Laptop Keyboard

As an archipelago of thirty-three islands, Bahrain does not share a land boundary with another country but does have a 161 km (100 mi) coastline. The country also claims a further 22 km (12 nmi) of territorial sea and a 44 km (24 nmi) contiguous zone. Bahrain's largest islands are Bahrain Island, Muharraq Island, Umm an Nasan, SONY VAIO VGN-CS170F/R Laptop Keyboard

and Sitrah. Bahrain has mild winters and very hot, humid summers. The country's natural resources include large quantities of oil and natural gas as well as fish in the offshore waters. Arable land constitutes only 2.82%[96] of the total area. ACER TravelMate 4600 Laptop Keyboard

92% of Bahrain is desert with periodic droughts and dust storms the main natural hazards for Bahrainis. Environmental issues facing Bahrain include desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, distribution stations, APPLE A1181 Laptop Keyboard

and illegal land reclamation at places such as Tubli Bay. The agricultural and domestic sectors' over-utilisation of the Dammam Aquifer, the principal aquifer in Bahrain, has led to its salinisation by adjacent brackish and saline water bodies. A hydrochemical study identified the locations of the sources of aquifer salinisation and delineated their areas of influence. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The investigation indicates that the aquifer water quality is significantly modified as groundwater flows from the northwestern parts of Bahrain, where the aquifer receives its water by lateral underflow from eastern Saudi Arabia, to the southern and southeastern parts. Four types of salinisation of the aquifer are identified: GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard

brackish-water up-flow from the underlying brackish-water zones in north-central, western, and eastern regions; seawater intrusion in the eastern region; intrusion of sabkha water in the southwestern region; and irrigation return flow in a local area in the western region. ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard

Four alternatives for the management of groundwater quality that are available to the water authorities in Bahrain are discussed and their priority areas are proposed, based on the type and extent of each salinisation source, in addition to groundwater use in that area.[97] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

Climate

Main article: Climate of Bahrain

The Zagros Mountains across the Persian Gulf in Iraq cause low level winds to be directed toward Bahrain. Dust storms from Iraq and Saudi Arabia transported by northwesterly winds, locally called Shamal wind, cause reduced visibility in the months of June and July.[98]

Due to the Persian Gulf area's low moisture, DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

summers are very hot and dry. The seas around Bahrain are very shallow, heating up quickly in the summer to produce high humidity, especially at night. Summer temperatures may reach up to 50 °C (122 °F) under the right conditions.[99] Rainfall in Bahrain is minimal and irregular. Rainfalls mostly occur in winter, with a recorded maximum of 71.8 mm (2.83 in).[100] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

More than 330 species of birds were recorded in the Bahrain archipelago, 26 species of which breed in the country. Millions of migratory birds pass through the Gulf region in the winter and autumn months.[102] One globally endangered species,Chlamydotis undulata, is a regular migrant in the autumn.[102] Compaq Presario CQ56-187SL laptop keyboard

The many islands and shallow seas of Bahrain are globally important for the breeding of the Phalacrocorax nigrogularis specie of bird, up to 100,000 pairs of these birds were recorded over the Hawar islands.[102] Only 18 species of mammals are found in Bahrain, animals such as Gazelles, desert rabbits andhedgehogs are common in the wild but the Arabian Oryx was hunted to extinction on the island.[102] Compaq Presario CQ71-101XX laptop keyboard

25 species of amphibiansand reptiles were recorded as well as 21 species of butterflies and 307 species of flora.[102] The marine biotopes are diverse and include extensive sea grass beds and mudflats, patchy coral reefs as well as offshore islands. Sea grass beds are important foraging grounds for some threatened species such as dugongs and the green turtle.[103] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

In 2003, Bahrain banned the capture of sea cows, marine turtles and dolphins within its territorial waters.[102]

The Hawar Islands Protected Area provides valuable feeding and breeding grounds for a variety of migratory seabirds, it is an internationally recognised site for bird migration. The breeding colony of Socotra Cormorant on Hawar Islands is the largest in the world, and the dugongs foraging around the archipelago form the second largest dugong aggregation after Australia.[103] Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard

Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy headed by the King, Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. He enjoys wide executive authorities which include appointing the Prime Minister and his ministers, commanding the army, chairing the Higher Judicial Council, appointing the parliament's upper half and dissolving its elected lower half.[82](p15) SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP08 laptop keyboard

The head of government is the unelected Prime Minister, Shaikh Khalīfa bin Salman Al Khalifa, the uncle of the current king who has served in this position since 1971, making him the world's longest serving prime minister in the world.[104] In 2010, about half of the governmentwas composed of Al Khalifa family.[105] TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5153 laptop keyboard

Bahrain has a bicameral National Assembly (al-Jam'iyyah al-Watani) consisting of the Shura Council (Majlis Al-Shura) with 40 seats and the Council of Representatives (Majlis Al-Nuwab) with 40 seats. The 40 members of the Shura are appointed by the king. In the Council of Representatives, 40ACER Aspire 5810TZ-4657 laptop keyboard

members are elected by absolute majority vote in single-member constituencies to serve 4-year terms.[106] The appointed council "exercises a de facto veto" over the elected, because draft acts must be approved by it in order they pass into law. After that the king may ratify and issue the act or return it within six months to the National Assembly where it may only pass into law if approved by two thirds of both councils.[82](p15) Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

In 1973, the country held its first parliamentary elections; however, two years later, the late emir dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution after it rejected the State Security Law.[62] The period between 2002 and 2010 saw three parliamentary elections. The first, held in 2002 was boycotted by the opposition, SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

Al Wefaq, which won a majority in thesecond in 2006 and third in 2010.[107] The 2011 by-election was held to replace 18 members of Al Wefaq who resigned in protest against government crackdown.[108][109] ACER Aspire AS5335-2257 laptop keyboard

The opening up of politics saw big gains for both Shīa and Sunnī Islamists in elections, which gave them a parliamentary platform to pursue their policies.[110] It gave a new prominence to clerics within the political system, with the most senior Shia religious leader, Sheikh Isa Qassim, playing a vital role.[111] HP Pavilion DV6-1210ew laptop keyboard

This was especially evident when in 2005 the government called off the Shia branch of the "Family law" after over 100,000 Shia took to the streets. Islamists opposed the law because "neither elected MPs nor the government has the authority to change the law because these institutions could misinterpret the word of God". HP HDX18-1100 CTO laptop keyboard

The law was supported by women activists who said they were "suffering in silence". They managed to organise a rally attended by 500 participants.[112][113][114] Ghada Jamsheer, a leading woman activist[115] said the government was using the law as a "bargaining tool with opposition Islamic groups".[116] TOSHIBA Satellite P105-S9337 laptop keyboard

Analysts of democratisation in the Middle East cite the Islamists' references to respect for human rights in their justification for these programmes as evidence that these groups can serve as a progressive force in the region.[117] Some Islamist parties have been particularly critical of the government's readiness to sign international treaties such as the United Nations' International Convention on Civil and Political Rights. HP Pavilion ze4600 laptop keyboard

At a parliamentary session in June 2006 to discuss ratification of the Convention, Sheikh Adel Mouwda, the former leader of salafist party, Asalah, explained the party's objections: "The convention has been tailored by our enemies, God kill them all, to serve their needs and protect their interests rather than ours. This why we have eyes from the American Embassy watching us during our sessions, to ensure things are swinging their way".[118] Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Bahrain

The period between 1975 and 1999 known as the "State Security Law Era", saw wide range of human rights violations including arbitrary arrests, detention without trial, torture and forced exile.[119][120] After the Emir Hamad Al Khalifa (now king) succeeded his father Isa Al Khalifa in 1999, he introduced wide reforms and human rights improved significantly.[121] HP Pavilion dv6-2162nr laptop keyboard

These moves were described by Amnesty International as representing a "historic period of human rights".[77]

Human rights conditions started to decline by 2007 when torture began to be employed again.[122] In 2011, Human Rights Watch described the country's human rights situation as "dismal".[123] Due to this, Bahrain lost some of the high International rankings it had gained before. SONY VAIO VGN-AW2XRY laptop keyboard

In 2011, Bahrain was criticised for its crackdown on the Arab spring uprising. In September, a government appointed commission confirmed reports of grave human rights violations including systematic torture. The government promised to introduce reforms and avoid repeating the "painful events".[129] However, reports by human rights organisations Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch issued in April 2012 said the same violations were still happening.[130][131] HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

Women's rights

Main article: Women's rights in Bahrain

Women's political rights in Bahrain saw an important step forward when women were granted the right to vote and stand in national elections for the first time in the 2002 election.[132] However, no women were elected to office in that year's polls. Instead, Shī'a and Sunnī Islamists dominated the election, DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

collectively winning a majority of seats.[133] In response to the failure of women candidates, six were appointed to the Shura Council, which also includes representatives of the Kingdom's indigenous Jewish and Christian communities.[134] Dr. Nada Haffadh became the country's first female cabinet minister on her appointment as Minister of Health in 2004. The quasi-governmental women's group, TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

 the Supreme Council for Women, trained female candidates to take part in the 2006 general election. When Bahrain was elected to head the United Nations General Assembly in 2006 it appointed lawyer and women's rights activist Haya bint Rashid Al Khalifa President of the United Nations General Assembly, HP Envy 15-1021tx Laptop Keyboard

only the third woman in history to head the world body.[135] Female activist Ghada Jamsheer said "The government used women's rights as a decorative tool on the international level." She referred to the reforms as "artificial and marginal" and accused the government of "hinder[ing] non-governmental women societies".[116] TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

In 2006, Lateefa Al Gaood became the first female MP after winning by default.[136] The number rose to four after the 2011 by-elections.[137] In 2008, Houda Nonoowas appointed ambassador to the United States making her the first Jewish ambassador of any Arab country.[138] In 2011, Alice Samaan, a Christian woman was appointed ambassador to the UK.[139]

Media HP Pavilion dv6-3005tx Laptop Keyboard

Bahraini journalists risk prosecution for offences which include "undermining" the government and religion. Self-censorship is widespread. Journalists were targeted by officials during anti-government protests in 2011. Three editors from opposition daily Al-Wasat (Bahraini newspaper) were sacked and later fined for publishing "false" news. Several foreign correspondents were expelled.[140] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Most domestic broadcasters are state-run. An independent commission, set up to look into the unrest, found that state media coverage was at times inflammatory. It said opposition groups suffered from lack of access to mainstream media, and recommended that the government "consider relaxing censorship".SONY VAIO VGN-CR31E Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain will host the Saudi-financed Alarab News Channel, expected to launch in December 2012. It will be based at a planned "Media City". An opposition satellite station, Lualua TV, operates from London but has found its signals blocked.[140] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard

By December 2011, Bahrain had 694,000 internet users.[141] The platform "provides a welcome free space for journalists, although one that is increasingly monitored", according to Reporters Without Borders. Rigorous filtering targets political, human rights, religious material and content deemed obscene. Bloggers and other netizens were among those detained during protests in 2011.[140] HP 383495-001 Laptop Keyboard

The kingdom has a small but well equipped military called the Bahrain Defence Force (BDF), numbering around 13,000 personnel.[142] The supreme commander of the Bahraini military is King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa and the deputy supreme commander is the Crown Prince, Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa.[143][144] SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

The BDF is primarily equipped with United States equipment, such as the F16 Fighting Falcon, F5 Freedom Fighter, UH60 Blackhawk,M60A3 tanks, and the ex-USS Jack Williams, an Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate renamed the RBNS Sabha.[145][146] The Government of Bahrain has close relations with the United States, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

having signed a cooperative agreement with the United States Military and has provided the United States a base in Juffair since the early 1990s, although a US naval presence existed since 1948.[147]This is the home of the headquarters for Commander, United States Naval Forces Central Command (COMUSNAVCENT) / United States Fifth Fleet (COMFIFTHFLT), and around 6,000 United States military personnel.[148] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain established bilateral relations with 190 countries worldwide.[149] As of 2012, Bahrain maintains a network of 25embassies, 3 consulates and 4 permanent missions to the Arab League, United Nations and European Union respectively.[150]Bahrain also hosts 36 embassies. Bahrain plays a modest, moderating role in regional politics and adheres to the views of the Arab League on Middle East peace and Palestinian rights, SONY VAIO VGN-FS485B Laptop Keyboard

it supports the two state solution.[151] Bahrain is also one of the founding members of the Gulf Cooperation Council.[152] Relations with Iran tend to be tense as a result of a failed coup in 1981 which Bahrain blames Iran for and occasional claims of Iranian sovereignty over Bahrain by ultra-conservative elements in the Iranian public.[153][154] SONY VAIO VGN-FS195XP Laptop Keyboard

Governorates

Main article: Governorates of Bahrain

The first municipality in Bahrain was the 8-member Manama municipality which was established in July 1919.[155] Members of the municipality were elected annually; the municipality was said to have been the first municipality to be established in the Arab world.[155] The municipality was in charge of cleaning roads and renting buildings to tenants and shops. HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

By 1929, it undertook road expansions as well as opening markets and slaughterhouses.[155] In 1958, the municipality started water purification projects.[155] In 1960, Bahrain comprised four municipalities including Manama, Hidd, Al Muharraq, and Riffa.[156] Over the next 30 years, the 4 municipalities were divided into 12 municipalities as settlements such as Hamad Town and Isa Town grew.[156] These municipalities were administered from Manama under a central municipal council whose members are appointed by the king.[157] SONY VAIO VGN-FS195XP laptop keyboard

The first municipal elections to be held in Bahrain after independence in 1971, was in 2002.[158] The most recent was in 2010. The municipalities are listed below:

According to a January 2006 report by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Bahrain has the fastest growing economy in the Arab world.[160] TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s121 laptop keyboard

Bahrain also has the freest economy in the Middle East and is twelfth freest overall in the world based on the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom published by the Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal.[161] SONY VAIO VGN-FS830 laptop keyboard

In 2008, Bahrain was named the world's fastest growing financial center by the City of London's Global Financial Centres Index.[160][160] Bahrain's banking and financial services sector, particularly Islamic banking, have benefited from the regional boom driven by demand for oil.[160] SONY VAIO VGN-FS640P laptop keyboard

Petroleum production and processing account is Bahrain's most exported product, accounting for 60% of export receipts, 70% of government revenues, and 11% of GDP.[96] Aluminium production is the second most exported product, followed by finance and construction materials.[96] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing price of oil since 1985, for example during and following thePersian Gulf crisis of 1990–91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to a number of multinational firms and construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

A large share of exports consist of petroleum products made from imported crude oil, which accounted for 51% of the country's imports in 2007.[162] Bahrain depends heavily on food imports to feed its growing population; it relies heavily on meat imports from Australia and also imports 75% of its total fruit consumption needs.[163][164] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Since only 2.9% of the country's land isarable, agriculture contributes to 0.5% of Bahrain's GDP.[164] In 2004, Bahrain signed the US-Bahrain Free Trade Agreement, which will reduce certain trade barriers between the two nations.[165] Due to the combination of the global financial crisis and the recent unrest, the growth rate decreased to 2.2% which is the lowest growth rate since 1994.[166] SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard

Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems. In 2008, the jobless figure was at 4%,[167] with women over represented at 85% of the total.[168] In 2007 Bahrain became the first Arab country to institute unemployment benefits as part of a series of labour reforms instigated under Minister of Labour, Dr. Majeed Al Alawi.[169] HP Mini 210-1155DX Laptop Keyboard

As a tourist destination, Bahrain received over eight million visitors in 2008 though the exact number varies yearly.[170] Most of these are from the surrounding Arab states although an increasing number hail from outside the region due to growing awareness of the kingdom's heritage and its higher profile as a result of the Bahrain International F1 Circuit. GATEWAY V030946DS1 Laptop Keyboard

The kingdom combines modern Arab culture and the archaeological legacy of five thousand years of civilisation. The island is home to forts including Qalat Al Bahrain which has been listed by UNESCO as aWorld Heritage Site. The Bahrain National Museum has artefacts from the country's history dating back to the island's first human inhabitants some 9000 years ago and the Beit Al Quran (Arabic: بيت القرآن, meaning: HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

the House of Qur'an) is a museum that holds Islamic artefacts of the Qur'an. Some of the popular historical tourist attractions in the kingdom are the Al Khamis Mosque, which is the one of the oldest mosques in the region, the Arad fort in Muharraq, Barbar temple, which is an ancient temple from the Dilmunite period of Bahrain, as well as the A'ali Burial Mounds and the Saar temple.[171] The Tree of Life, a 400 year-old tree that grows in the Sakhir desert with no nearby water, is also a popular tourist attraction.[172] DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard

Bird watching (primarily in the Hawar Islands), scuba diving and horse riding are popular tourist activities in Bahrain. Many tourists from nearby Saudi Arabia and across the region visit Manama primarily for the shopping malls in the capital Manama, such as the Bahrain City Centre and Seef Mall in the Seef district of Manama. The Manama Souq and Gold Souq in the old district of Manama are also popular with tourists.[173] HP G42-265LA Laptop Keyboard

Since 2005, Bahrain annually hosts a festival in March, titled Spring of Culture, which features internationally renowned musicians and artists performing in concerts.[174] Manama was named the Arab Capital of Culture for 2012 and Capital of Arab Tourism for 2013 by the Arab League. The 2012 festival featured concerts starring Andrea Bocelli, ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard

Julio Iglesias and other musicians.[175]

Bahrain has a well-developed road network, particularly in Manama. The discovery of oil in the early 1930s accelerated the creation of multiple roads and highways in Bahrain, connecting several isolated villages, such as Budaiya, to Manama.[177] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

To the east, a bridge connected Manama to Muharraq since 1929, a new causeway was built in 1941 which replaced the old wooden bridge.[177] Currently there are three modern bridges connecting the two locations.[178] Transits between the two islands peaked after the construction of the Bahrain International Airport in 1932.[177] Ring roads and highways were later built to connect Manama to the villages of the Northern Governorate and towards towns in central and southern Bahrain. ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

The four main islands and all the towns and villages are linked by well-constructed roads. There were 3,164 km (1,966 mi) of roadways in 2002, of which 2,433 km (1,512 mi) were paved. A causeway stretching over 2.8 km (2 mi), connect Manama withMuharraq Island, and another bridge joins Sitra to the main island. The King Fahd Causeway, ASUS F82Q Laptop Keyboard

measuring 24 km (15 mi), links Bahrain with the Saudi Arabian mainland via the island of Umm an-Nasan. It was completed in December 1986, and financed bySaudi Arabia. In 2008, there were 17,743,495 passengers transiting through the causeway.[179] SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain's port of Mina Salman is the main seaport of the country and consists of 15 berths.[8] In 2001, Bahrain had a merchant fleet of eight ships of 1,000 GRTor over, totaling 270,784 GRT.[180] Private vehicles and taxis are the primary means of transportation in the city.[181]

Telecommunication TOSHIBA PK130260100 Laptop Keyboard

Main articles: Telecommunications in Bahrain and Internet in Bahrain

The telecommunications sector in Bahrain officially started in 1981 with the establishment of Bahrain's first telecommunications company, Batelco and until 2004, it monopolised the sector. In 1981, there were more than 45,000 telephones in use in the country. By 1999, Batelco had more than 100,000 mobile contracts.[182] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4115 Laptop Keyboard

In 2002, under pressure from international bodies, Bahrain implemented its telecommunications law which included the establishment of an independent Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA).[182] In 2004, Zain (a rebranded version of MTC Vodafone) started operations in Bahrain and in 2010VIVA (owned by STC Group) become the third company to provide mobile services.[183] DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain has been connected to the internet since 1995 with the country's domain suffix is '.bh'. The country's connectivity score (a statistic which measures both Internet access and fixed and mobile telephone lines) is 210.4 percent per person, while the regional average in the Gulf States is 135.37 percent.[184] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

 The number of Bahraini internet users has risen from 40,000 in 2000[185] to 250,000 in 2008,[186] or from 5.95 to 33 percent of the population. As of January 2012, the TRA has licensed 34 Internet Service Providers, the largest of which is Batelco.[187] DELL Latitude D430 laptop keyboard

In 2010, Bahrain's population grew to 1.2 million, of which 568,399 were Bahraini and 666,172 were non-nationals.[1]It had risen from 1.05 million (517,368 non-nationals) in 2007, the year when Bahrain's population crossed the one million mark.[188] Though a majority of the population is ethnically Arab, a sizeable number of people from South Asia live in the country. In 2008, approximately 290,000 Indian nationals lived in Bahrain, making them the single largest expatriate community in the country.[189][190] ACER Aspire One AOA150-1570 laptop keyboard

Bahrain is the fourth most densely populated sovereign state in the world with a population density of 1,646 people per km2 in 2010.[1] The only sovereign states with larger population densities are city states. Much of this population is concentrated in the north of the country with the Southern Governorate being the least densely populated part.[1] The north of the country is so urbanised that it is considered by some to be one large metropolitan area.[191] HP Pavilion dv5-1110el laptop keyboard

The official religion of Bahrain is Islam and 99.8% of Bahraini citizens are Muslim. There are no official figures for the proportion of Shia and Sunni among the Muslims of Bahrain, but approximately 66-70% percent of Bahraini Muslims are Shias.[192][193][194][195] Due to an influx of immigrants and guest workers from non-Muslim countries, such as India, Philippines and Sri Lanka, Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

the overall percentage of Muslims in the country has declined in recent years.[196] According to the 2001 census, 81.2% of Bahrain's population was Muslim, 9% were Christian, and 9.8% practised Hinduism or other religions.[96] The 2010 census records that the Muslim proportion had fallen to 70.2% (the 2010 census did not differentiate between the non-Muslim religions).[1]

Languages HP Pavilion dv5-1233se laptop keyboard

Arabic is the official language of Bahrain, though English is widely used.[197] Bahrani Arabic is the most widely spoken dialect of the Arabic language, though this differs slightly from standard Arabic. Arabic plays an important role in political life, as, according to article 57 (c) of Bahrain's constitution, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

an MP must be fluent in Arabic to stand for parliament. Among the non-Bahraini population, many people speak Persian, the official language of Iran, or Urdu, the official language of Pakistan.[197] Malayalam and Hindi is also widely spoken in the Indian community.[197] Many commercial institutions and road signs arebilingual, HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

displaying both English and Arabic.[198]

Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14.[199] Education is free for Bahraini citizens in public schools, with the Bahraini Ministry of Education providing free textbooks. Coeducation is not used in public schools, with boys and girls segregated into separate schools.[200] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

At the beginning of the 20th century, Qur'anic schools (Kuttab) were the only form of education in Bahrain.[201] They were traditional schools aimed at teaching children and youth the reading of the Qur'an. After World War I, Bahrain became open to western influences, and a demand for modern educational institutions appeared. HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

1919 marked the beginning of modern public school system in Bahrain when the Al-Hidaya Al-Khalifia School for boys opened in Muharraq.[201] In 1926, the Education Committee opened the second public school for boys in Manama, and in 1928 the first public school for girls was opened in Muharraq.[201] As of 2011, there are a total of 126,981 students studying in public schools.[202] ASUS A6R laptop keyboard

In 2004, King Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa introduced the "King Hamad Schools of Future" project that uses Information Communication Technology to support K–12 education in Bahrain.[203] The project's objective is to connect all schools within the kingdom with the Internet.[204] In addition to British intermediate schools, HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

the island is served by the Bahrain School(BS). The BS is a United States Department of Defense school that provides a K-12 curriculum including International Baccalaureate offerings. There are also private schools that offer either the IB Diploma Programme or United Kingdom's A-Levels. HP Pavilion DV6-1334us laptop keyboard

Bahrain also encourages institutions of higher learning, drawing on expatriate talent and the increasing pool of Bahrain nationals returning from abroad with advanced degrees. The University of Bahrain was established for standard undergraduate and graduate study, and the King Abdulaziz University College of Health Sciences, operating under the direction of the Ministry of Health, trains physicians, TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s121 laptop keyboard

nurses, pharmacists, and paramedics. The 2001 National Action Charter paved the way for the formation of private universities such as the Ahlia University in Manama and University College of Bahrain in Saar. The Royal University for Women (RUW), established in 2005, was the first private, purpose-built, TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard

international University in Bahrain dedicated solely to educating women. TheUniversity of London External has appointed MCG (Management Consultancy Group) as the regional representative office in Bahrain for distance learning programmes.[205] MCG is one of the oldest private institutes in the country. Compaq Presario CQ42-359TU laptop keyboard

Institutes have also opened which educate South Asian students, such as the Pakistan Urdu School, Bahrain and the Indian School, Bahrain. A few prominent institutions are DePaul University, Bentley University, the Ernst & Young Training Institute, NYIT and the Birla Institute of Technology International Centre In 2004, SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard

the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) setup a constituent medical university in the country. In addition to the Arabian Gulf University, AMA International University and the College of Health Sciences, these are the only medical schools in Bahrain. TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard

Health

Bahrain has a universal health care system, dating back to 1960.[206] Government-provided health care is free to Bahraini citizens and heavily subsidised for non-Bahrainis. Healthcare expenditure accounted for 4.5% of Bahrain's GDP, according to the World Health Organisation. Bahraini physicians and nurses form a majority of the country's workforce in the health sector, unlike neighbouring Gulf states.[207] ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

The first hospital in Bahrain was the American Mission Hospital, which opened in 1893 as a dispensary.[208] The first public hospital, and also tertiary hospital, to open in Bahrain was the Salmaniya Medical Complex, in theSalmaniya district of Manama, in 1957.[209] Private hospitals are also present throughout the country, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

such as the International Hospital of Bahrain.

The life expectancy in Bahrain is 73 for males and 76 for females. Compared to many countries in the region, the prevalence of AIDS and HIV is relatively low.[210] Malaria and tuberculosis (TB) do not constitute major problems in Bahrain as neither disease is indigenous to the country.  IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R50E Laptop Keyboard

As a result, cases of malaria and TB have declined in recent decades with cases of contractions amongst Bahraini nationals becoming rare.[210] The Ministry of Health sponsors regular vaccination campaigns against TB and other diseases such as hepatitis B.[210][211] HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain is currently suffering from an obesity epidemic as 28.9% of all males and 38.2% of all females are classified as obese.[212] Bahrain also has one of the highest prevalence of diabetes in the world (5th place), with more than 15% of the Bahraini population suffering from the disease, and accounting for 5% of deaths in the country.[213] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Cardiovascular diseases account for 32% of all deaths in Bahrain, being the number one cause of death in the country (the second being cancer).[214] Sickle cell anaemia and thalassaemia are prevalent in the country, with a study concluding that 18% of Bahrainis are carriers of sickle cell anaemia while 24% are carriers of thalassaemia.[215] ACER TravelMate 4230 Series Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain is sometimes described as "Middle East lite"[216] due to its combination of modern infrastructure with a Persian Gulf identity. While Islam is the main religion, Bahrainis are known for their tolerance towards the practice of other faiths.[217] SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

Rules regarding female attire are generally relaxed compared to regional neighbours; the traditional attire of women usually include the hijab or the abaya.[95] Although the traditional male attire is the thobe which also includes traditional headdresses such as the Keffiyeh, Ghutra and Agal, western clothing is common in the country.[95] SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard

In common with the rest of the Muslim world, though Bahrain has taken strong strides for women's rights, it does not recognise lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender rights.[218]

Another facet of the new openness is Bahrain's status as the most prolific book publisher in the Arab world, with 132 books published in 2005 for a population of 700,000. In comparison, the 2005 average for the entire Arab world was seven books published per one million people, according to the United Nations Development Programme.[219] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

The modern art movement in the country officially emerged in the 1950s, culminating in the establishment of an art society.Expressionism and surrealism, as well as calligraphic art are the popular forms of art in the country. Abstract expressionismhas gained popularity in recent decades.[220] Pottery-making and textile weaving are also popular products that were widely made in Bahraini villages.[220] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Arabic calligraphy grew in popularity as the Bahraini government was an active patron in Islamic art, culminating in the establishment of an Islamic museum, Beit Al Quran.[220] The Bahrain national museum houses a permanentcontemporary art exhibition.[221] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X301 2779 Laptop Keyboard

The architecture of Bahrain is similar to that of its Gulf neighbours. The wind tower, which generates natural ventilation in a house, is a common sight on old buildings, particularly in the old districts of Manama andMuharraq.[222] TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard

Literature

Main article: Literature of Bahrain

Literature retains a strong tradition in the country; most traditional writers and poets write in the classical Arabic style. In recent years, the number of younger poets influenced by western literature are rising, most writing in free verse and often including political or personal content.[223] Ali al-Sharqawi, a decorated longtime poet, was described in 2011 by Al Shorfa as the literary icon of Bahrain.[224] ACER Aspire 5745 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In literature, Bahrain was the site of the ancient land of Dilmun mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Legend also states that it was the location of the Garden of Eden.[225][226]

Association football is the most popular sport in Bahrain.[95] Bahrain's national football team has competed multiple times at the Asian Cup, ACER KB.INT00.058 laptop keyboard

Arab Nations Cupand played in the FIFA World Cup qualifiers, though it has never qualified for the World Cup.[228] Bahrain has its own top-tier domestic professional football league, the Bahraini Premier League. Basketball, Rugby and horse riding are also widely popular in the country. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51e-1859 laptop keyboard

Bahrain has competed in six Summer Olympics, debuting in the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Olympics.[229] Bahrain has only won one Olympic medal in its history, that being a bronze medal won by Maryam Yusuf Jamal in the women's 1500 metres race at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London.[230] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

Jamal is the first woman from any Gulf nation to win an Olympic medal.[231] Prior to the 2012 summer Olympics, the closest attempt to Bahrain winning an Olympic medal was via Rashid Ramzi winning themen's 1,500 metres race at the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics. However, his medal was stripped after he failed a drug test the following year.[232] Bahrain has competed in every Summer Olympic since 1984 but has never competed in the Winter Olympics. ASUS M70V laptop keyboard

Bahrain has a Formula One race-track, which hosted the inaugural Gulf Air Bahrain Grand Prix on 4 April 2004, the first in an Arab country. This was followed by the Bahrain Grand Prix in 2005. Bahrain hosted the opening Grand Prix of the 2006 season on 12 March of that year. Both the above races were won by Fernando Alonso of Renault. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

The race has since been hosted annually, except for 2011 when it was cancelled due to ongoing anti-government protests.[233] The latest edition of the Bahrain Grand Prix was the 2012 Bahrain Grand Prix, that occurred despite concerns of the safety of the teams and the ongoing protests in the country.[234] Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard

The decision to hold the race despite ongoing protests and violence[235] has been described as "controversial" by Al Jazeera English,[236] CNN,[237] AFP[238] and Sky News.[239] The Independent named it "one of the most controversial in the history of the sport".[240] SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard

In 2006, Bahrain also hosted its inaugural Australian V8 Supercar event dubbed the "Desert 400". The V8s returned every November to the Sakhir circuit until 2010, in which it was the second event of the series. The series has not returned since. The Bahrain International Circuit also features a full-length drag strip where the Bahrain Drag Racing Club has organised invitational events featuring some of Europe's top drag racing teams to try to raise the profile of the sport in the Middle East.[241] ACER TravelMate 4230 Series laptop keyboard

The Bahraini uprising is a series of demonstrations, amounting to a sustained campaign of civil resistance, in the Persian Gulf country of Bahrain. As part of the revolutionary wave of protests in the Middle East and North Africa following the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Tunisia, the Bahraini protests were initially aimed at achieving greater political freedom and equality for the majority Shia population,[22][23] Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

and expanded to a call to end the monarchy of Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa[3] following a deadly night raid on 17 February 2011 against protesters at the Pearl Roundabout in Manama,[24][25] known locally as the Bloody Thursday. Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

Protesters in Manama camped for days at the Pearl Roundabout, which became the centre of the protests. After a month, the government requested troops and police from the Gulf Cooperation Council, who arrived on 14 March. A day later, the king of Bahrain declared martial law and a three-month state of emergency.[26][27] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Pearl Roundabout was cleared of protesters and the iconic statue at its centre was destroyed. After the state of emergency ended on 1 June, the opposition party, Al Wefaq National Islamic Society, organized several weekly protests[28] usually attended by tens of thousands.[29] On 9 March 2012 over 100,000 attended[30] and another on 31 August attracted tens of thousands.[31] Daily smaller-scale protests and clashes continued, mostly outside Manama's business districts.[32][33] By April 2012, more than 80 had died.[34] SONY VAIO VGN-NW15L laptop keyboard

The police response was described as a "brutal" crackdown on peaceful and unarmed protesters, including doctors and bloggers.[35][36][37] The police carried out midnight house raids in Shia neighbourhoods, beatings at checkpoints and denial of medical care in a campaign of intimidation.[38][39][40] More than 2,929 people have been arrested,[20][41] and at least five died due to torture in police custody.[11]:287–8SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard

In June, King Hamad established the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry composed of international independent figures to assess the incidents.[42] The report was released on 23 November and confirmed the Bahraini government's use of systematic torture and other forms of physical and psychological abuse on detainees, HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

as well as other human rights violations.[11]:298 It also rejected the government's claims that the protests were instigated by Shia Iran.[43] The report was criticised for not disclosing the names of individual abusers and extending accountability only to those who actively carried out human rights violations.[44] DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi

is the capital and the second largest city of the United Arab Emirates in terms of population and the largest of the seven member emirates of the United Arab Emirates. Abu Dhabi lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the Persian Gulf from the central western coast. The city proper had a population of 921,000 in 2013.[4] SONY VAIO VGN-AW2XRY laptop keyboard

Abu Dhabi houses important offices of the federal government, and is the seat for the United Arab Emirates Government and the home for the Abu Dhabi Emiri Family and the President of the UAE from this family. HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi has grown to be a cosmopolitan metropolis. Its rapid development and urbanisation, coupled with the relatively high average income of its population, has transformed Abu Dhabi to a larger and advanced metropolis. Today the city is the country's center of political, industrial activities, and a major cultural, and commercial centre due to its position as the capital. Abu Dhabi alone generated 56.7% of the GDP of the United Arab Emirates in 2008.[5][6] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi is home to important financial institutions such as the Abu Dhabi Securities Exchange, the Central Bank of the United Arab Emirates and the corporate headquarters of many companies and numerous multinational corporations. One of the world's largest producers of oil, Abu Dhabi has actively attempted to diversify its economy in recent years through investments in financial services and tourism. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi is the second most expensive city for expatriate employees in the region, and 67th most expensive city in the world.[7] Fortune magazine and CNN stated in 2007 that Abu Dhabi is the richest city in the world.[8] ACER Aspire 7535 Laptop Keyboard

The origin of the name "Abu Dhabi" is uncertain. Meaning "Father of Deer", it probably referred to the few gazelle that inhabit the emirate. According to Bilal Al Budoor, assistant under-secretary for Cultural Affairs at the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Community Development, "The area had a lot of dhibaa [deer], and was nicknamed after that." An old story tells about a man who used to chase deer [dhabi] and was named the "father"Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

of the animal. Abu Dhabi's original name was Milh"salt", possibly referring to the salty water of the Persian Gulf. Some Bedouins called the city Umm Dhabi (mother of deer), while British records refer to the place as Abu Dhabi. According to some historical accounts, the name Abu Dhabi was first used more than 300 years ago. Abu Dhabi is pronounced "Bu Dhabi" by inhabitants of the western coast of the city. In the eastern part of the city, the pronunciation is "Abu".[3] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

In the 1930s, as the pearl trade declined, interest grew in the oil possibilities of the region. On 5 January 1936, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd (PDTC), an associate company of the Iraq Petroleum Company, entered into a concession agreement with the ruler, Sheikh Shakhbut bin Sultan al Nahyan, to explore for oil.  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

This was followed by a seventy-five-year concession signed in January 1939. However, owing to the desert terrain, inland exploration was fraught with difficulties. In 1953, D'Arcy Exploration Company, Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

the exploration arm of British Petroleum, obtained an offshore concession which was then transferred to a company created to operate the concession: Abu Dhabi Marine Areas (ADMA) was a joint venture between BP and Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later Total). In 1958, using a marine drilling platform, tHP 643263-001 Laptop Keyboard

he ADMA Enterprise, oil was struck in the Umm Shaif field at a depth of about 8,755 feet (2,669 m). This was followed in 1959 by PDTC’s onshore discovery well at Murban No.3.[14] SONY VAIO VGN-CS170F/R Laptop Keyboard

In 1962, the company discovered the Bu Hasa field and ADMA followed in 1965 with the discovery of the Zakum offshore field. Today, in addition to the oil fields mentioned, the main producing fields onshore are Asab, Sahil and Shah, and offshore are al-Bunduq, and Abu al-Bukhoosh.[14] ACER TravelMate 4600 Laptop Keyboard

The city of Abu Dhabi is on the northeastern part of the Persian Gulf in the Arabian Peninsula. It is on an island less than 250 metres (820 ft) from the mainland and is joined to the mainland by the Maqta and Mussafah Bridges. A third, Sheikh Zayed Bridge, designed by Zaha Hadid, opened in late 2010. Abu Dhabi Island is also connected to Saadiyat Island by a five-lane motorway bridge. Al-Mafraq bridge connects the city to Reem Island and was completed in early 2011. APPLE A1181 Laptop Keyboard

This is a multilayer interchange bridge and it has 27 lanes which allow roughly 25,000 automobiles to move per hour. There are three major bridges of the project, the largest has eight lanes, four leaving Abu Dhabi city and four coming in.[15] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Most of Abu Dhabi city is located on the island itself, but it has many suburbs on the mainland, for example: Khalifa City A, B, and C;[16] Al Raha Beach;[17] Al Bahia City A, B, and C; Al Shahama; Al Rahba; Between Two Bridges; Baniyas; and Mussafah Residential. GATEWAY V021646BS1 Laptop Keyboard

The Emirate of Abu Dhabi’s land surface measures 67,340 square kilometres, which is equivalent to about 87% of the UAE’s total land area.[18] Only 30% of the emirate is inhabited, with the remaining vast expanses covered mainly by desert and arid land — constituting about 93% of the total land area. ASUS A3Ac Laptop Keyboard

Land cultivation and irrigation for agriculture and forestation over the past decade has increased the size of “green” areas in the emirate to about 5% of the total land area, including parks and roadside plantations. About 1.2% of the total land area is used for agriculture. A small part of the land area is covered by mountains, SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

containing several caves. The coastal area contains pockets of wetland and mangrove colonies. Abu Dhabi also has dozens of islands, mostly small and uninhabited, some of which have been designated as sanctuaries for wildlife.[19] DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi has a hot arid climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Sunny blue skies can be expected throughout the year. The months of June through September are generally hot and humid with maximum temperatures averaging above 35 °C (95 °F). During this time, sandstorms occur intermittently, in some cases reducing visibility to a few meters.[20] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

The weather is cooler from November to March. This period also sees dense fog on some days. The oasis city of Al Ain, about 150 km (93 mi) away, bordering Oman, regularly records the highest summer temperatures in the country; however, the dry desert air and cooler evenings make it a traditional retreat from the intense summer heat and year-round humidity of the capital city.[21] HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan is the hereditary ruler of Abu Dhabi (UAE). He is a son of Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the first president of the United Arab Emirates. His half-brother, Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, is Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi, and wields considerable influence as Chairman of Abu Dhabi's Executive Council and Deputy Supreme Commander of the armed forces of The United Arab Emirates.[23] SONY VAIO VGN-FS195XP laptop keyboard

The total number of members of the Executive Council has been slimmed down to 98 since the succession and it now consists largely of prominent members of the ruling family as well as a number of respected politicians.[24] TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s121 laptop keyboard

The emirates maintain their hereditary rulers who, as a group, form the UAE’s Supreme Council of Rulers, headed by the president. Although the presidency is renewable every five years through a vote in the council, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan held the presidency from the formation of the UAE until his death in November 2004, and there is an implicit understanding that Abu Dhabi’s ruler will always be elected president.[24] SONY VAIO VGN-FS830 laptop keyboard

At a federal level, laws must be ratified by the Supreme Council. The Council of Ministers forms the executive authority of the state. This 20-member cabinet is headed by the president’s chosen prime minister, a post currently held by Dubai’s ruler, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum. SONY VAIO VGN-FS640P laptop keyboard

In the case of Abu Dhabi, this is eight. The procedures for appointment to the FNC have recently been amended so that each emirate must now select its representatives through an electoral body. The size of each electoral authority must be 100 times greater than the number of representatives it appoints. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

Half the members of each electoral body will be selected by the ruler of the emirate while the other half will be directly elected by residents of the emirate. These amendments are considered to be the first step in a wider electoral reform program which will see greater representation at a federal level.[25] Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard

The density of Abu Dhabi varies, with high employment density in the central area, high residential densities in central downtown and lower densities in the suburbs. In the dense areas, most of the concentration is achieved with medium- and high-rise buildings. TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5153 laptop keyboard

Abu Dhabi's skyscrapers such as the notable Abu Dhabi Investment Authority Tower,[26] theNational Bank of Abu Dhabi headquarters,[27] the Hilton Hotel Tower[28] and the Etisalatheadquarters are usually found in the financial districts of Abu Dhabi.[29] Other notable modern buildings include the Emirates Palace with its design inspired by Arab heritage.[30] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP08 laptop keyboard

The development of tall buildings has been encouraged in the Abu Dhabi Plan 2030, which will lead to the construction of many new skyscrapers over the next decade, particularly in the expansion of Abu Dhabi's central business district such as the new developments onAl Sowwah Island and Al Reem Island. ACER Aspire 5810TZ-4657 laptop keyboard

Some of the tallest buildings on the skyline include the 382 m (1,253.28 ft) Central Market Residential Tower, the 324 m (1,062.99 ft) The Landmark and the 74-story, 310 m (1,017.06 ft) Sky Tower. Also many other skyscrapers over 150 m (492.13 ft) (500 ft) are either proposed or approved and could transform the city's skyline. As of July 2008, there were 62 high-rise buildings 23 to 150 m (75.46 to 492.13 ft) under construction, approved for construction, or proposed for construction.[32] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

One of the most important architectural landmarks is the Sheikh Zayed Mosque. This is arguably one of the most important architectural treasures of contemporary UAE society — and one of the most opulent in the world. It was initiated by the late president of the United Arab Emirates, HH Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, fondly thought of as the father of the UAE.[33] ACER Aspire AS5335-2257 laptop keyboard

Its design and construction reportedly 'unites the world', using artisans and materials from many countries including Italy, Germany, Morocco, India, Turkey, Iran, China, United Kingdom, New Zealand, Greece and of course the United Arab Emirates. More than 3,000 workers and 38 renowned contracting companies took part in the construction of the mosque. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

Natural materials were chosen for much of its design and construction due to their long-lasting qualities, including marble, stone, gold, semi-precious stones, crystals and ceramics. Construction began on November 5, 1996. The maximum capacity is approximately 41,000 people and the overall structure is 22,412 square metres and although still under construction, the internal prayer halls were initially opened in December 2007.[33] HP Pavilion DV6-1210ew laptop keyboard

As one of the most visited buildings in the UAE, the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque Center was established to manage the day-to-day operations, as a place of worship and Friday gathering and as a centre of learning and discovery through its education and visitor programs.[34] HP HDX18-1100 CTO laptop keyboard

and 6% of gas. Abu Dhabi thus holds 9% of the world’s proven oil reserves (98.2bn barrels) and almost 5% of the world’s natural gas (5.8 trillion cu metres). Oil production in the UAE was in the region of 2.3m barrels per day (bpd) in 2010,[37] and projects are in progress to boost production to 3m bpd. In recent years the focus has turned to gas as increasing domestic consumption for power, desalination and reinjection of gas into oil fields increases demand. TOSHIBA Satellite P105-S9337 laptop keyboard

Gas extraction is not without its difficulties, however, as demonstrated by the sour gas project at Shah where the gas is rich in hydrogen sulphide content and is expensive to develop and process.[14] HP Pavilion ze4600 laptop keyboard

Recently the government has been diversifying their economic plans. Served by high oil prices, the country’s non oil and gas GDP has outstripped that attributable to the energy sector. Remarkably, non oil and gas GDP now constitutes 64% of the UAE’s total GDP. This trend is reflected in Abu Dhabi with substantial new investment in industry, Packard Bell NEW95 laptop keyboard

real estate, tourism and retail. As Abu Dhabi is the largest oil producer of the UAE, it has reaped the most benefits from this trend. It has taken on an active diversification and liberalisation programme to reduce the UAE’s reliance on the hydrocarbon sector. This is evident in the emphasis on industrial diversification with the completion of free zones, Industrial City of Abu Dhabi, HP Pavilion dv6-2162nr laptop keyboard

twofour54 Abu Dhabi media free zone and the construction of another, ICAD II, in the pipeline. There has also been a drive to promote the tourism and real estate sectors with the Abu Dhabi Tourism Authority and the Tourism and Development Investment Company undertaking several large-scale development projects. These projects will be served by an improved transport infrastructure with a new port, an expanded airport and a proposed rail link between Abu Dhabi and Dubai all in the development stages.[38] SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi is the wealthiest emirate of the UAE in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and per capita income. More than $1 trillion is invested worldwide in this city alone. In 2010, the GDP per capita also reached $49,600, which ranks ninth in the world after Qatar, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg and many others. TOSHIBA PK130260100 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi is also planning many future projects sharing with the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) and taking 29% of all the GCC future plannings. The United Arab Emirates is a fast-growing economy: in 2006 the per capita income grew by 9%, providing a GDP per capita of $49,700 and ranking third in the world at purchasing power parity. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4115 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi's sovereign wealth fund, the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA), currently estimated at US$ 875 billion, is the world's wealthiest sovereign fund in terms of total asset value.[39] Etihad Airways maintains its headquarters in Abu Dhabi.[40] DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi's government is looking to expand revenue from oil and gas production to tourism and other sorts of features which would attract different types of people. This goal is seen in the amount of attention Abu Dhabi is giving to its International Airport. The airport, in 2009, experienced a 30%+ growth in passenger usage.[41] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

This idea of diversification of the economy is also seen in the Abu Dhabi Economic Vision 2030[42] planned by the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council. In this plan Abu Dhabi's economy will be sustainable and not be dependent on any one facet or source of revenue. More specifically the non-oil portion of income is planned to be increased from about 40% to about 60%.[39] HP Envy 15-1021tx Laptop Keyboard

water shortage. On average each Abu Dhabi resident uses 550 litres (120 imp gal; 150 U.S. gal) of water per day.[46] Abu Dhabi daily produces 1,532 tonnes of solid wastes which is dumped at three landfill sites by Abu Dhabi Municipality.[47][48] The daily domestic waste water production is 330 MiGD and industrial waste water is 40 MiGD. A large portion of the sewerage flows as waste into streams, and separation plants.[48] TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

HP Pavilion dv6-3005tx Laptop Keyboard

The city's per capita electricity consumption is about 41,000 kWh and the total supplied is 8,367 MW as of 2007.[49] The distribution of electricity is carried out by companies run by SCIPCO Power and APC Energy.[50][51] The Abu Dhabi Fire Service runs 13 fire stations that attend about 2,000 fire and rescue calls per year. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

State-owned Etisalat and private du communication companies provide telephone and cell phone service to the city. Cellular coverage is extensive, and both GSM and CDMA (from Etisalat and Du) services are available. SONY VAIO VGN-CR31E Laptop Keyboard

Etisalat, the government owned telecommunications provider, held a virtual monopoly over telecommunication services in Abu Dhabi prior to the establishment of other, smaller telecommunications companies such as Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company (EITC — better known as Du) in 2006COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard

Internet was introduced into Abu Dhabi in 1995. The current network is supported by a bandwidth of 6 GB, with 50,000 dialup and 150,000 broadband ports. Etisalat recently announced implementing a fibre-to-the-home (FTTH) network in Abu Dhabi during the third quarter of 2009 to make the emirate the world's first city to have such a network.[52] HP 383495-001 Laptop Keyboard

The city was planned in the 1970s for an estimated maximum population of 600,000. In accordance with what was considered to be ideal urban planning at the time, the city has wide grid-pattern roads, and high-density tower blocks.[53] On the northerly end of the island, where the population density is highest, the main streets are lined with 20- to 30-story towers. Inside this rectangle of towers is a normal grid pattern of roads with lower density buildings (2-story villas or 6-story low-rise buildings). SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi is a modern city with broad boulevards, tall office and apartment buildings, and busy shops. Principal thoroughfares are the Corniche, Airport Road, Sheikh Zayed Street, Hamdan Street and Khalifa Street. Abu Dhabi is known in the region for its greenery; the former desert strip today includes numerous parks and gardens. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The design of the inner city roads and main roads are quite organised. Starting from the Corniche, all horizontal streets are oddly and the vertical ones evenly numbered. Thus, the Corniche is Street #1, Khalifa is Street #3, Hamdan is Street #5, and so on. Conversely, Salam Street is St #8.[54] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Mail is generally delivered to post-office boxes only; however, there is door-to-door delivery for commercial organizations. There are many parks throughout the city. Entrance is usually free for children, however there is often an entrance fee for adults. The Corniche, the city's seaside promenade, is about 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) in length, with gardens, playgrounds, and a BMX/skateboard ring.[55] SONY VAIO VGN-FS485B Laptop Keyboard

In 2007 the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council (UPC) was established, which is the agency responsible for the future of Abu Dhabi’s urban environments and the expert authority behind the visionary Plan Abu Dhabi 2030 Urban Structure Framework Plan that was published in September 2007.[56] The UPC is also working on similar plans for the regions of Al-Ain and Al-Gharbia. SONY VAIO VGN-FS195XP Laptop Keyboard

Because of the rapid development of Abu Dhabi, a number of challenges to the city's urban organization have developed, among them:

As of 2001, 25.6% of the population of the emirate was made up of UAE nationals. Approximately 74.4% of the population was expatriates.[61] Compaq Presario CQ42-359TU laptop keyboard

The median age in the emirate was about 30.1 years. The crude birth rate, as of 2005, was 13.6%, while the crude death rate was about 2%.[62] SONY KFRMBA221A laptop keyboard

Article 7 of the UAE's Provisional Constitution declares Islam the official state religion of the UAE.[63] The government subsidizes almost 95% of mosques and employs all imams.

The majority of the inhabitants of Abu Dhabi are expatriate workers from India, Pakistan,Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Philippines, the United Kingdom and various countries from across the Arab world.[64] Consequently, English, TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard

Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam, Tamil,Somali, Tigrinya, Amharic and Bengali are widely spoken.[65] Apart from Urdu and Hindi spoken by Indians and Pakistanis, many South Asian expatriates also contribute other South Asian languages to the cultural milieu, including Malayalam, the main language spoken in the state of Kerala. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

The native-born population are Arabic-speaking Gulf Arabs who are part of a clan-based society. The Al Nahyan family, part of the al-Falah branch of the Bani Yas clan, rules the emirate and has a central place in society.[66] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi International Airport (AUH) is the city's main aviation hub and the second busiest airport in the UAE, serving 9.02 million passengers in 2008, up 30.2% from 2007.[67][67] Its terminal spaces are dominated by Etihad Airways which is the UAE's national carrier and the country's second largest airline.[68] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

A new terminal opened in 2009 with total capacity reaching 12 million passengers per annum by 2011.[69] Development work has also started on a new passenger terminal, to be situated between the two runways and known as the Midfield Terminal. The new mega-midfield terminal complex will be capable of handling an additional 20 million passengers a year initially and then later, SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F Laptop Keyboard

as Abu Dhabi develops as a major Middle East transport hub, up to 50 million passengers a year, thus providing a major competition to Dubai International Airport.[70] The 5.9-million-square-metre (1,500 acres) terminal will initially include 42 gates, rising to more than 90 gates on completion of the airport.[71] HP Mini 210-1155DX Laptop Keyboard

Public transport systems in Abu Dhabi include the Abu Dhabi public buses, taxis, ferries, and airplanes.[72] White-and-mustard metered taxis traverse most of the city in UAE. Currently newer silver-colored taxis are coming in, while the old mustard-colored ones are being phased out.[73] Abu Dhabi has about 8,000 old bronze/yellow/gold & white taxis, which will be phased out from 2008 to 2010.[74] GATEWAY V030946DS1 Laptop Keyboard

The first town bus entered service in about 1969 but this was all part of a very informal service. On 30 June 2008 the Department of Transport began public bus service in Abu Dhabi with four routes.[76] In an attempt to entice people to use the bus system, all routes were zero-fare until the end of 2008.[77] The four routes, which operate between 6 am and midnight every day, run at a frequency of 10 to 20 minutes.[77] HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

Within the first week of service, the bus network had seen high ridership. Some of the buses, which have a maximum capacity of 45 passengers, only had room for standing left. Some bus drivers reported as many as 100 passengers on a bus at one time.[78] Although the new, zero-fare bus service has been a success, DELL XPS 15 L502X Laptop Keyboard

many taxi drivers are losing business. Taxi drivers have seen a considerable decrease in the demand for taxis while lines were forming for the buses.[79] The service steadily expanded and by the end of 2008, 230 buses were in service. In 2009, the Department of Transport plans to have 21 bus routes in the city, operated by 820 buses. A total of 1,360 buses are expected to be in operation by 2010.[78] HP G42-265LA Laptop Keyboard

A massive expansion of public transport is anticipated within the framework of the government's Surface Transport Master Plan 2030.[80] The expansion is expected to see 130 km (81 mi) of metro and 340 km (210 mi) of tramways and/or bus rapid transit (BRT) ACER Aspire One D150-1920 Laptop Keyboard

Abu Dhabi has a diverse and multicultural society.[81] The city's cultural imprint as a small, ethnically homogeneouspearling community was changed with the arrival of other ethnic groups and nationals — first by the Iranians in the early 1900s, and later by Indians and Pakistanis in the 1960s. Abu Dhabi has been criticized for perpetuating a class-based society, where migrant workers are in the lower classes.[82] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Despite the diversity of the population, only minor and infrequent episodes of ethnic tensions, primarily between expatriates, have been reported in the city. Major holidays in Abu Dhabi include Eid al Fitr, which marks the end of Ramadan, Eid ul-Adha which marks the end of Hajj, and National Day (2 December), ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates.[83]

This unique socioeconomic development in the Persian Gulf has meant that Abu Dhabi is generally more tolerant than its neighbours.[84] While Islam is the main religion, Emaritis have been known for their tolerance; Christian churches, Hindu temples, and Sikh gurdwaras (but no synagogues) can be found alongside mosques. ASUS F82Q Laptop Keyboard

 The country is home to several communities that have faced persecution elsewhere. The cosmopolitan atmosphere is gradually growing and as a result, there are a variety of Asian and Western schools, cultural centers and themed restaurants. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

ASUS M70V laptop keyboard

Abu Dhabi is home to a number of cultural institutions including the Cultural Foundation and the National Theater. The Cultural Foundation, while closed for reconstruction as of spring 2011, is home to the UAE Public Library and Cultural Center.[85] Various cultural societies such as the Abu Dhabi Classical Music Society have a strong and visible following in the city. The recently launched Emirates Foundation offers grants in support of the arts, DELL Latitude D430 laptop keyboard

as well as to advance science and technology, education, environmental protection and social development. The International Prize for Arabic Fiction (IPAF) will be based in Abu Dhabi. The city also stages hundreds of conferences and exhibitions each year in its state-of-the-art venues, including the Abu Dhabi National Exhibition Centre (ADNEC) which is the Persian Gulf's largest exhibition center and welcomes around 1.8 million visitors every year.[86] ACER Aspire One AOA150-1570 laptop keyboard

The Red Bull Air Race World Series has been a spectacular sporting staple for the city for many years, bringing tens of thousands to the waterfront.[87] Another major event is the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference (ADIPEC). HP Pavilion dv5-1110el laptop keyboard

The diversity of cuisine in Abu Dhabi is a reflection of the cosmopolitan nature of the society. Arab food is very popular and is available everywhere in the city, from the small shawarma to the upscale restaurants in the city's many hotels. Fast food and South Asian cuisine are also very popular and are widely available. Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

The sale and consumption of pork, though not illegal, is regulated and it is sold only to non-Muslims in designated areas.[88] Similarly, the sale ofalcoholic beverages is regulated. A liquor permit is required to purchase alcohol; however, alcohol, although available in bars and restaurants within four orfive star hotels, is not sold as widely as in its more liberal neighbour Dubai.[89] Shisha and qahwa boutiques are also popular in Abu Dhabi. HP Pavilion dv5-1233se laptop keyboard

Poetry in Abu Dhabi and the UAE is highly regarded and often is centric around the themes of satire, religion, family, chivalry and love. According to an article from an Abu Dhabi tourism page, sheikhs, teachers, sailors and princes make a large bulk of the poets within the UAE. A unique form of poetry to the UAE was formed in the 8th century by Al Khalil bin Ahmed and it was written in 16 meters. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The first known poet from the UAE, Ibn Majid, was born sometime between 1432 and 1437 in Ras Al Khaimah. According to the tourism page Majid came from a family of sailors and 40 of his works have survived. Another Emirati poet, Ibn Daher is from the 17th century. Daher is important because he used Nabati poetry (AKA Bedouin poetry), HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

poetry written in the vernacular instead of the classical/religious Arabic. Other important poets from the UAE are Mubarak Al Oqaili (1880–1954), Salem bin Ali al Owais (1887–1959) and Ahmed bin Sulayem (1905–1976). These poets made headway in the field of Classical Arabic poetry as opposed to the Nabati poetry of the 17th century.[90] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

One of Ibn Masjid’s most prominent works is a book called, Kitab al-Fawa’id fi Usul ‘Ilm al-Bahr wa ’l-Qawa’id (Book of Useful Information on the Principles and Rules of Navigation), and it was written in 1490. This book is effectually an encyclopædia about navigation and sailing in and around the Indian Ocean. Masjid also goes into detail about the intricacies and technologies of the Arab sailing techniques. An excerpt from his book is as follows: HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

Abu Dhabi is home to international and local private schools[93] and universities,[94] including government-sponsored United Arab Emirates University in Al-Ain,New York University, Higher Colleges of Technology, New York Film Academy, Paris-Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi and Abu Dhabi University in Abu Dhabi. ASUS A6R laptop keyboard

These boast several languages that make up the population of the city. For example, the Abu Dhabi Indian School follows the CBSE Indian syllabus. INSEAD, the prestigious international business school, established a campus in February 2010, offering an Executive MBA and executive education courses. New York Universityopened a government-sponsored satellite campus in Abu Dhabi in September 2010.[95] HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

All schools in the emirate are under the authority of the Abu Dhabi Education Council. This organization oversees and administers public schools and licenses and inspects private schools. From 2009, the Council has brought over thousands of licensed teachers from native English speaking countries to support their New School Model Program in government schools. HP Pavilion DV6-1334us laptop keyboard

Abu Dhabi Education Council (ADEC) maintains a comprehensive after-school program for interested and talented jiu-jitsu students.[96] The Abu Dhabi Jiu-Jitsu Schools Program began in 2008 under the patronage of H.H. Sheikh Zayed Bin Mohammed Al Nahyan, who is a keen Brazilian jiu-jitsu competitor. The program launched in 14 schools for pupils in grades 6 and 7 and has since expanded to 42 government schools, with 81 Brazilian coaches brought in as instructors.[97] TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s121 laptop keyboard

Students from 9 to 13 years old are taught Brazilian jiu-jitsu as part of the curriculum. The plan is for up to 500 schools to be participating in the school-jitsu program by 2015. The project was set up by special request of HH Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Al Nahyan to the head coach of the Emirates jiu-jitsu teamCarlos Santos, now also the managing director of the School-Jitsu Project.[98] TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard

Every year in the season of admissions an exhibition is launched in Abu Dhabi Exhibition Center under the supervision of the government.[99] Universities from every corner of the world exhibit their career programs and scholarship programs for globally bright students. This seems to be a well-defined platform for the students of all nationalities. Heriot-Watt University, University of Bolton, Cambridge University, Oxford University, the Petroluem Institute, Khalifa University and Abu Dhabi University attend. DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Abu Bakr, a companion and close friend of Muhammad, was made the first caliph. His immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as theRidda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[129] The Quran was compiled into a one book at this time. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar ibn al-Khattab as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first caliphs are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into the Persian and Byzantine territories.[130] ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the Islamic State. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.[131] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

 IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R50E Laptop Keyboard

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.[132] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna".HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[133] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.[134][135] Since the Constitution of Medina, Jews and Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.[136][137][138] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented non-Arab converts (mawali), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[139]

During this time, the Delhi Sultanate took over of the Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted Volga Bulgaria to Islam. Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of theSong Dynasty.[140] ACER TravelMate 4230 Series Laptop Keyboard

The major hadith collections were compiled during the early Abbasid era. TheJa'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

Al-Shafi'i also codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith.[141] Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn Kathir in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers Al-Farabi and Avicenna sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[142] SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard

Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the mutazilite philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called kalam, which refers to dialectic.[143] Many orthodox Muslims rejected mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months.[144] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school founded by Al-Ash'ari. Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve intoSufism.[145] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by Al-Ghazali, who developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[146] TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard

This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".[147] Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,[148][149] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.[150][151] The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[152] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X301 2779 Laptop Keyboard

The doctorate is argued to date back to the licenses to teach in Muslim law schools.[153] Standards of experimental and quantification techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,[154] were introduced.[155] An important pioneer in this, Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world’s first true scientist".[156][157] ACER Aspire 5745 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[154] The data used by Copernicus for hisheliocentric conclusions was gathered and Al-Jahiz proposed a theory of natural selection.[158][159] Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America. ACER KB.INT00.058 laptop keyboard

 The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatiansunsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.[164] The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.[165] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51e-1859 laptop keyboard

 Islam spread with Muslim trade networks that extended into Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia and the Malay archipelago.[166] Under theOttoman Empire, many in the Balkans became Muslim. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[167][168] SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M Laptop Keyboard

The Muslim world was generally in political decline, especially relative to the non-Islamic European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.[169] TOSHIBA Satellite C650-15C Laptop Keyboard

The Reconquista, launched against Muslimprincipalities in Iberia, succeeded in 1492 and Muslim Italian states were lost to the Normans. By the 19th century the British Empirehad formally ended the last Mughal dynasty in India.[170] The Ottoman era ended after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[171][172] SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z Laptop Keyboard

The majority Shia group at that time, the Zaydis, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.[173][174][175] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[176] The ensuing mandatory conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam for the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the Zaidi sect, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty, and the Ismaili sect.[177] HP Pavilion dv3-2304tx laptop keyboard

An important revival movement during this period include an 18th-century Salafi movement led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by the logician Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, TOSHIBA Satellite L500-ST2522 laptop keyboard

the movement seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including those of the Prophet and his companions.[178] In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated. ASUS K030662M2 laptop keyboard

Modern times (1924–present)

Further information: Iranian revolution and Islamic revival

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[179] SONY VAIO VGN-CS220J/T laptop keyboard

The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[180]Muslim immigrants, many as guest workers, began arriving, largely from former colonies, into several Western European nations since the 1960s. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

New Muslim intellectuals are beginning to arise, and are increasingly separating perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.[181] Liberal Islamis a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".[182] Women's issues receive a significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.[183] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Secular powers such as Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans and Communist Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion.[184][185] In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments and headscarves were, as well as in Tunisia, banned in official buildings.[186][187] About half a million Muslims were killed in Cambodia by communists whom, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god.[188] COMPAQ Presario CQ45-206TU laptop keyboard

Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned.[189] Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival.[190] In Iran, revolution replaced a secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

while Islamist parties are doing well in elections following the Arab Spring.[191] The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of theAl-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[192] Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard

Piety appears to be deepening worldwide.[193][194][195] In many places, the prevalence of the Islamic veil is growing increasingly common [196] and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.[197] SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard

With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges.[194] Some organizations began using the media to promote Islam such as the 24-hour TV channel, Peace TV.[198] Perhaps as a result of these efforts, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in East andWest Africa.[199][200] ACER TravelMate 4230 Series laptop keyboard

The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%–90% of all Muslims.[7] Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means "people of the tradition [of Muhammad]".[201][202] These hadiths ("reports"), recountingMuhammads words, actions, and personal characteristics, are preserved in traditions known as Al-Kutub Al-Sittah (six major books). Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act according to the Qur'an and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights.

Quran, Surat Al-Hujurat [49:13]:[87] Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

"O mankind, indeed I have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted." [203][204][205]

Sunnis believe a caliph should be elected by the whole community.[206]

The Sunnis approach God directly and there is no organized clerical hierarchy. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

The Sunnis follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then for legal matters not found in the Quran or the Hadith, they follow fourmadh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki andShafi'i, established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. SONY VAIO VGN-NW15L laptop keyboard

All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.[207] The Salafi(also known as Ahl al-Hadith (Arabic: أهل الحديث; The people of hadith), or the pejorative term Wahhabi by its adversaries) is an ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which takes the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.[208] SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard

Shia

Main article: Shia Islam

The Shi'a constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.[8]

Shia Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers, followed by Zaidis and Ismailis. HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

After the death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq (the great grand son of Abu Bakr and Ali ibn Abi Talib) considered the sixth Imam by the Shia's, the Ismailis started to follow his son Isma'il ibn Jafar and the Twelver Shia's (Ithna Asheri) started to follow his other son Musa al-Kazim as their seventh Imam. The Zaydis follow Zayd ibn Ali, the uncle of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, as their fifth Imam. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

While Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor and a caliph should be chosen by the whole community, the Twelver Shias and the Ismaili Shias believe that during Muhammad's final pilgrimage to Mecca, he appointed his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor in the Hadith of the pond of Khumm. As a result, they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn al-Affan and Umar ibn al-Khattab. HP Probook 4320s Laptop Keyboard

Other smaller groups include the Bohra and Druze,[209] as well as the Alawites and Alevi.

Zaydis, the oldest branch of the Shia and the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty in the sixteenth century and currently the second largest group, are the closest to the Sunnis and do not believe in the infallibility of Imāms after Husayn. Zaydis believe that on the last hour of Zayd ibn Ali, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

he was betrayed by the people in Kufa who said to him: "May God have mercy on you! What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab?" Zayd ibn Ali said, "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them...when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Qur'an and the Sunnah.".[210][211] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Since Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, Imam Zayd ibn Ali, ImamsAbu Hanifa and Imam Malik ibn Anas worked together in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina along with over 70 other leading jurists and scholars. And Imam Jafar al-Sadiq and Imam Zayd ibn Ali did not them selves write any books. Therefore the Zaydis to this day and originally the Fatamids, use the Hanafi jurisprudence, as do most Sunnis.[84][212][213] HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard

The Twelver Shia believe that the political and religious leadership of Imams come from the direct descendants of Muhammad and Ali ibn Abi Talib, also known as the Ahl al-Bayt. To Twelver Shias, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, SAMSUNG Q330-JS02 Laptop Keyboard

having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. The Twelver Shias say their last such Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi's[116] occultated in 868 AD and will return at the end of time. However, their Imams are not allowed to introduce new laws or eradicate old ones; they are simply required to interpret and reflect the will of Allah and Muhammad.[214] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

The Twelvers believe that there were 12 Imams infallible from sin and mistake [215][216][217][218] or caliphs, after Muhammad. They often cite the Hadith of the Twelve Successors as evidence. Shias prefer hadiths attributed to the Ahlul Bayt and close associates. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence[219] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

named after Jafar al-Sadiq (the great grand son of Ali ibn Abi Talib the fourth caliph and Abu Bakr the first caliph accepted by the Sunnis and the Zaydi Shia but not the Twelver Shia). Since Jafar al-Sadiq (702-765) did not write anything down, the books followed by the Twelver Shi'a were written by Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (864- 941), Ibn Babawayh (923-991), and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274). DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

Some Shia branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine as Ghulat.

Sufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God.[220] By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[221] HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard

However, Sufism has been criticized by the Salafi sect for what they see as an unjustified religious innovation.[222] Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a, but others classify themselves simply as "Sufi".[223][224] Like the Zaydis and most Sunnis, most of the Sufis also follow the Hanafi jurisprudence.[84][212][213] Lenovo 3000 C200 Laptop Keyboard

Hasan al-Basri lived during the time of Muhammad and was inspired by the ideas of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed by Al-Ghazali in his books on Sufism. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57 billion people, are Muslims. Of those, it's estimated over 75–90% areSunni and 10–20% are Shi'a,[11][201][227] DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority,[228] and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.[229] Between 1900 and 1970 the global Muslim community grew from 200 million to 551 million;[230] between 1970 and 2009 Muslim population increased more than three times to 1.57 billion. SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard

The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[231] Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[232][233] In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[234] HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[235][236][237][238] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.[239] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,[240] and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.[11][241]

Economy HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

Main article: Islamic economic jurisprudence

To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, Islamic economic jurisprudence encourages trade,[93] discourages the hoarding of wealth and out laws interest bearing loans usury (the term is riba in Arabic).[94][95] Therefore wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable.[96] Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.[97]

Grabbing other peoples land is also prohibited. The prohibition of usury has resulted in the development of Islamic banking. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor. Then in 634, Umar formally established the welfare state Bayt al-mal. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under theRashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.[98][99][100][101] HP Pavilion dv6-2020sa laptop keyboard

Government

Main articles: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic state, Islam and secularism, and Caliphate

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. Currently no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, they all deal in usury and in Government bonds.[102][103][104]

Military TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8832 laptop keyboard

Main articles: Jihad, Islamic military jurisprudence, and List of expeditions of Muhammad

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God). Jihad, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.[105] HP G61-110SA laptop keyboard

Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[106][107] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[108] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[109] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

In Islam there is also no compulsion in religion, as stated in surah Al-Baqara 256 in the Quran[110][111] and there are clear limits imposed, for example, in warMuhammed prohibited the killing of women, children and civilians.[112] SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M laptop keyboard

and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[113][114] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[115] Only for those vested with authority, does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[114] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's[116] occultation in 868 AD.[117] SONY VAIO VGN NR480E laptop keyboard

In Muslim tradition, Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) is viewed as the last in a series of prophets.[118] During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel (Jibril). The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.[119] HP G72-150EF Laptop Keyboard

During this time, Muhammad in Mecca preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and to worship one God. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. This resulted in the Migration to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the Aksumite Empire). Many early converts to Islam, were the poor and former slaves like Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

The Meccan elite felt that Muhammad was destabilising their social order by preaching about one God, racial equality and in the process giving ideas to the poor and their slaves.[120][121][122][123]  SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and the Meccan boycott of the Hashemites, Muhammads relatives,Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard

Muhammad in Medina established his political andreligious authority. A state was established in accordance with Islamic economic jurisprudence. The Constitution of Medina was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community — the Ummah.[124][125] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The Constitution established: the security of the community, religious freedoms, the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons), the security of women, stable tribal relations within Medina, a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict, parameters for exogenous political alliances,  DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

a system for granting protection of individuals, and a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws. All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Madina from all external threats and to live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles were fought against the Meccan forces: first, the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the Battle of Uhud, which ended inconclusively. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the Battle of the Trench besieged Medina intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, theTreaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[126] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[127] SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard

There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam, but "jurist" generally refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in several fields of Islamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ72B laptop keyboard

Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs,imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulama (singular Aalim). Some Muslims practise ijtihad whereby they do not accept the authority of clergy.[86]  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Education is considered very important to Muslims, so that they could distinguish right from wrong, but when it comes to entry into heaven, the most noble in the sight of Allah are the most righteous and they may be honest, compassionate and helpful to other but not necessary very educated.[87] Packard Bell Easynote TM98 laptop keyboard

Etiquette and diet

Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), sayingbismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4112 laptop keyboard

Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[88] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard

The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division ofinheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. IBM Thinkpad Z60m laptop keyboard

With some exceptions, the woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[89] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[90] SONY KFRMBA152A laptop keyboard

Marrying more than one woman was practiced in Arab culture before Islam arrived, therefore it is addressed in the Quran(verse 4:3) limiting the number of wives to four and only if a man could treat them with fairness and equity. Some scholars have considered this permissibility a way of seeing men bear responsibility for all their mates and ensure that the physical paternity of a child is always known. HP Pavilion dv6-2150es laptop keyboard

Packard Bell Easynote TM81 laptop keyboard

Other scholars think that verse 4:3 refers to a situation after a battle (battle of Uhud) caused large loss of men. Pre-modern Muslim scholars took this granted, however, beginning in the twentieth century, it became the subject of debate among feminists. Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous as the rule is a conditional permission not a recommendation.[91][92] SONY VAIO VGN-N17G laptop keyboard

HP G72-150EF laptop keyboard

United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates , sometimes simply called theEmirates or the UAE,[note 1] is an Arab country in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing sea borders with Qatar and Iran. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

The UAE is a federation of seven emirates (equivalent to principalities), each governed by a hereditary emir, who choose one of their members to be the president of the federation. The constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain. ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

The capital is Abu Dhabi, which is also the state's center of political, industrial, and cultural activities.[7] Islam is the official religion of the UAE, and Arabic is theofficial language.[8]

Since 1962, when Abu Dhabi became the first of the emirates to begin exporting oil, the country's society and economy were transformed. ASUS F82Q Laptop Keyboard

The late Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and president of the UAE at its inception, oversaw the development of all the emirates and directed oil revenues into healthcare, education and the national infrastructure.[9] SONY 148738121 Laptop Keyboard

UAE oil reserves are ranked as the world's seventh-largest.[10] It also possesses the world's seventeenth largest reserves natural gas resources[11] and it is one of the most developed economies in Western Asia. Per capita income is the world's seventh-highest.[12] TOSHIBA PK130260100 Laptop Keyboard

Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following Vasco da Gama's route of exploration saw them battleSafavid Persia up the coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1507, the Portuguese Captain Afonso de Albuquerque sailed a small fleet into theGulf of Oman and the Straits of Hormuz seeking a way of by-passing Arab traders and taking control of the Indian Ocean to increase the amount of wealth flowing into the Portuguese monarchy’s coffers.[18] Vasco da Gama was helped by Ahmad Ibn Majid, a navigator and cartographer from Julfar, to find the spice route from Asia.[19] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4115 Laptop Keyboard

During the 16th century, the entire territory came under the direct influence of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Navy defeated Portuguese forces on several fronts including the Gulf coast.[20] The British eventually got the upper hand, but the region was known to the British as the "Pirate Coast", DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

as raiders based there harassed the shipping industry despite both European and Omaninavies patrolling the area from the 17th century into the 19th.[21] British expeditions to protect the Indian trade from raiders atRas al-Khaimah led to campaigns against that headquarters and other harbours along the coast in 1819. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The following year, Britain and local rulers signed a treaty to combat piracy along the Gulf coast. Yet according to the local Qawassim version, the piracy issue was a pretext. The British Empire tried to further establish itself in the Persian Gulf region and to secure it from any other European influence, HP Envy 15-1021tx Laptop Keyboard

particularly from France and Russia, not from local raiders. This version has been particularly well articulated by the current emir of Sharjah in his 1986 book 'The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf’. From this, and from later agreements, the area became known as the Trucial Coast. Raids continued intermittently until 1835, when the sheikhs agreed not to engage in hostilities at sea. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

In 1853, they signed a treaty with the British, under which the sheikhs (the "Trucial Sheikhdoms") agreed to a "perpetual maritime truce." It was enforced by the United Kingdom, and disputes among sheikhs were referred to the British for settlement.[22] HP Pavilion dv6-3005tx Laptop Keyboard

Primarily in reaction to the ambitions of other European countries, the United Kingdom and the Trucial Sheikhdoms established closer bonds in an 1892 treaty, similar to treaties entered into by Britain with other principalities in the Persian Gulf. The sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to Britain and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the United Kingdom without its consent. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack.[23] British suppression of piracy meant that pearling fleets could operate in relative security. However, the British prohibition of the slave trade meant an important source of income was lost to some sheikhs and merchants.[24] SONY VAIO VGN-CR31E Laptop Keyboard

Main article: History of the United Arab Emirates

The earliest known human habitation in the UAE dated from 5500 BC. At this early stage, there is proof of interaction with the outside world, particularly with civilizations to the north west in Mesopotamia. These contacts persisted and became wide-ranging, probably motivated by trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, which commenced around 3000 BC.[13] Foreign trade, the recurring motif in the history of this strategic region, flourished also in later periods, facilitated by the domestication of the camel at the end of the second millennium BC.[14] COMPAQ Presario CQ60-104TU Laptop Keyboard

By the 1st century AD overland caravan traffic between Syria and cities in southern Iraq began. Also, there was seaborne travel to the important port of Omana (present-day Umm al-Qaiwain) and then to India. These routes were an alternative to the Red Sea route used by the Romans.[15] Pearls had been exploited in the area for millennia but at this time the trade reached new heights. Seafaring was also a mainstay and major fairs were held at Dibba, bringing in merchants from as far as China.[16] HP 383495-001 Laptop Keyboard

The arrival of envoys from the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 630 heralded the conversion of the region to Islam. After Muhammad, one of the major battles of theRidda Wars was fought at Dibba resulting in the defeat of the non-Muslims and the triumph of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

In 637, Julfar (today Ra's al-Khaimah) was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of Sasanian Iran.[17] Over many centuries, Julfar became a wealthy port and pearling center from which dhows travelled throughout the Indian Ocean especially to neighboring land of Sindh and its cities of Thatta and Debal. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the pearling industry thrived in the relatively calm sea, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf. It began to become a good economic resource for the local people. Then the First World War had a severe impact on the pearl fishery, but it was the economic depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s, DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

 coupled with the Japanese invention of the cultured pearl, that all but destroyed it. The industry eventually faded away shortly after the Second World War, when the newly independent Government of India imposed heavy taxation on pearls imported from the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.[25] HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

Oil was first discovered in the 1950s. At the beginning of the 1960s, the first oil company teams carried out preliminary surveys and the first cargo of crude was exported from Abu Dhabi in 1962. As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi,Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals and roads. When Dubai’s oil exports commenced in 1969, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the de facto ruler of Dubai, was also able to use oil revenues to improve the quality of life of his people.[26] ASUS A6R laptop keyboard

In 1955, the United Kingdom sided with Abu Dhabi in the latter's dispute with Oman over the Buraimi Oasis, another territory to the south.[27] A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia would have settled the Abu Dhabi-Saudi border dispute; however, the agreement has yet to be ratified by the UAE government and is not recognized by the Saudi government. The border with Oman also remains officially unsettled, but the two governments agreed to delineate the border in May 1999.[28] HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

The British had set up a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The seven sheikhs of the emirates then decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. In 1952, they formed the Trucial States Council,[29] and appointed Adi Bitar, Sheikh Rashid's legal advisor, as Secretary General and Legal Advisor to the Council. HP Pavilion DV6-1334us laptop keyboard

The council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed.[30] The development of the oil industry in the 1960s, encouraged unification of the sheikdoms. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan became ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1966 and the British started losing their oil investments and contracts to U.S. oil companies.[31] As independence loomed in 1968, Bahrain and Qatar joined the Trucial States. Differences caused them to leave the union in 1971. TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s121 laptop keyboard

By 1966 it became clear the British Government could no longer afford to govern what is now the United Arab Emirates. British MPs debated in Parliament that theRoyal Navy would not be able to defend the trucial sheikhdoms. Denis Healey, who at the time was the Secretary of State for Defence reported that the British Armed Forces were seriously overstretched and in some respects dangerously under-equipped to defend the trucial sheikhdoms. TOSHIBA NSK-TBD01 laptop keyboard

On 24 January 1968, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson announced its decision, reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime Minister Edward Heath to end the treaty relationships with the seven Trucial sheikhdoms that had been, together with Bahrain and Qatar, under British protection. Days after the announcement, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

the ruler of Abu Dhabi Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honour the protection treaties by providing the full costs of keeping the British Armed Forces in the Emirates. Not only did the British Labour government rebuff the offer, it did so in a way that offended the Emirati rulers.[32] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

After Labour MPGoronwy Roberts informed Sheikh Zayed of the news of British withdrawal, the nine Gulf sheikhdoms attempted to form a union of Arab emirates, but by mid-1971 they were still unable to agree on terms of union even though the British treaty relationship was to expire in December of that year.[33] TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard

Bahrain became independent in August, and Qatar in September 1971. When the British-Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on December 1, 1971, they became fully independent.[34] The rulers of Abu Dhabi and Dubai decided to form a union between their two emirates independently, prepare a constitution, then call the rulers of the other five emirates to a meeting and offer them the opportunity to join. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X301 2779 Laptop Keyboard

It was also agreed between the two that the constitution be written by December 2, 1971.[35] On that date, at the Dubai Guesthouse Palace, four other emirates agreed to enter into a union called the United Arab Emirates. The emirates ofBahrain and Qatar were also invited to join the Union, but they declined the invitation. Ras al-Khaimah joined later, in early 1972.[36][37] In February 1972, the Federal National Council (FNC) was created; it was a 40 member consultative body appointed by the seven rulers. ACER Aspire 5745 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The UAE joined the Arab League in 1971. It was a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council in May 1981 and its first summit is held in Abu Dhabi. UAE forces joined the allies against Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait in 1991. ACER KB.INT00.058 laptop keyboard

The UAE supported military operations from the United States and other Coalition nations that are engaged in the war against the Taliban in Afghanistan (2001) and Saddam Hussein in Iraq (2003) as well as operations supporting the Global War on Terrorism for the Horn of Africa at Al Dhafra Air Base located outside of Abu Dhabi. IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R51e-1859 laptop keyboard

[citation needed] The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Operation Northern Watch. The country had already signed a military defense agreement with the U.S. in 1994 and one with France in 1995.[38][39][40] In January 2008, France and the UAE signed a deal allowing France to set up a permanent military base in the emirate of Abu Dhabi.[41] The UAE joined international military operations in Libya in March 2011. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

On 2 November 2004, the UAE's first president, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died. His eldest son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, succeeded as Emir of Abu Dhabi. In accordance with the constitution, ASUS M70V laptop keyboard

the UAE's Supreme Council of Rulers elected Khalifa as president. Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan succeeded Khalifa as Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi.[42] In January 2006, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai, died, and the crown prince Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum assumed both roles. DELL Latitude D430 laptop keyboard

The first-ever national elections were held in the UAE on 16 December 2006. A small number of hand-picked voters chose half of the members of the Federal National Council—which is an advisory body. ACER Aspire One AOA150-1570 laptop keyboard

Largely unaffected by the Arab Spring turmoil, the government has nonetheless clamped down on Internet activism.[43] In April 2011, five activists who signed an online petition calling for reforms were imprisoned. HP Pavilion dv5-1110el laptop keyboard

They were pardoned and released in November. Since March 2012 more than 60 activists have been detained without charge - some of them supporters of the Islah Islamic group. A member of the ruling family in Ras al-Khaimah was put under house arrest in April 2012 after calling for political openness. Mindful of the protests in nearby Bahrain, Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

in November 2012 the UAE outlawed online mockery of its own government or attempts to organise public protests through social media.[9]

The United Arab Emirates is situated in Southwest Asia, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Oman and Saudi Arabia; it is in a strategic location along southern approaches to the Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil.[44] HP Pavilion dv5-1233se laptop keyboard

The UAE lies between 22°30' and 26°10' north latitude and between 51° and 56°25′ east longitude. It shares a 530-kilometer border with Saudi Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, and a 450-kilometer border with Oman on the southeast and northeast. The land border with Qatar in the Khawr al Udayd area is about nineteen kilometers in the northwest; however, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

it is a source of ongoing dispute.[45] Following Britain's military departure from UAE in 1971, and its establishment as a new state, the UAE laid claim to islands resulting in disputes with Iran that remain unresolved. UAE also disputes claim on other islands against the neighboring state of Qatar.[46] The largest emirate, Abu Dhabi, accounts for 87% of the UAE's total area (67,340 square kilometers). The smallest emirate, Ajman, encompasses only 259 square kilometers (see figure). HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

The UAE coast stretches for more than 650 kilometers along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf. Most of the coast consists of salt pans that extend far inland. The largest natural harbor is at Dubai, although other ports have been dredged at Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, and elsewhere. Numerous islands[which?] are found in the Persian Gulf, and the ownership of some of them has been the subject of international disputes with both Iran and Qatar. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

 The smaller islands, as well as many coral reefs and shifting sandbars, are a menace to navigation. Strong tides and occasional windstorms further complicate ship movements near the shore. The UAE also has a stretch of the Al Bāţinah coast of the Gulf of Oman, although the Musandam Peninsula, the very tip of Arabia by the Strait of Hormuz is an enclave of Oman within the UAE. Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

South and west of Abu Dhabi, vast, rolling sand dunes merge into the Rub al-Khali (Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia. The desert area of Abu Dhabi includes two important oases with adequate underground water for permanent settlements and cultivation. The extensive Liwa Oasis is in the south near the undefined border with Saudi Arabia. About 100 kilometers to the northeast of Liwa is the Al-Buraimi oasis, which extends on both sides of the Abu Dhabi-Oman border. Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

Prior to withdrawing from the area in 1971, Britain delineated the internal borders among the seven emirates in order to preempt territorial disputes that might hamper formation of the federation. In general, the rulers of the emirates accepted the British intervention, but in the case of boundary disputes between Abu Dhabi and Dubai, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

and also between Dubai and Sharjah, conflicting claims were not resolved until after the UAE became independent. The most complicated borders were in the Al-Hajar al-Gharbi Mountains, where five of the emirates contested jurisdiction over more than a dozen enclaves. SONY VAIO VGN-NW15L laptop keyboard

The climate of the U.A.E is subtropical-arid with hot summers and warm winters. The hottest months are July and August, when average maximum temperatures reach above 40 °C (104.0 °F) on the coastal plain. In the Al Hajar Mountains, temperatures are considerably lower, a result of increased elevation.[47] SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard

HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

Average minimum temperatures in January and February are between 10 and 14 °C (50 and 57.2 °F).[48] During the late summer months, a humid southeastern wind known as Sharqi (i.e. "Easterner") makes the coastal region especially unpleasant. The average annual rainfall in the coastal area is less than 120 mm (4.7 in), TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

but in some mountainous areas annual rainfall often reaches 350 mm (13.8 in). Rain in the coastal region falls in short, torrential bursts during the summer months, sometimes resulting in floods in ordinarily dry wadi beds.[49] The region is prone to occasional, violent dust storms, which can severely reduce visibility. The Jebel Jais mountain cluster in Ras al-Khaimah has experienced snow only twice since records began.[50] DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

Main article: Politics of the United Arab Emirates

Current President of the United Arab Emirates,Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan

The United Arab Emirates is a federation of absolute hereditary monarchies. It is governed by a Federal Supreme Council made up of the seven emirs of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, Ras al-Khaimah and Umm al-Qaiwain. All responsibilities not granted to the national government are reserved to the emirates.[51] A percentage of revenues from each emirate are allocated to the UAE’s central budget.[52] HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

Although elected by the Supreme Council, the president and prime minister are essentially hereditary. The emir of Abu Dhabi holds the presidency, and the emir of Dubai is prime minister. All but one prime minister served concurrently as vice president. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was the UAE's president from the nation's founding until his death on November 2, 2004. On the following day the Federal Supreme Council elected his son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, to the post. Abu Dhabi's crown prince, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, is the heir apparent.[53] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

The UAE convened a half-elected Federal National Council in 2006. The FNC consists of 40 members drawn from all the emirates. Half are appointed by the rulers of the constituent emirates, and the other half are indirectly elected to serve two-year terms. However, the FNC is restricted to a largely consultative role.[54] In December 2008, the Supreme Council approved constitutional amendments both to empower the FNC and to improve government transparency and accountability.[55]  IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R50E Laptop Keyboard

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) eGovernment is the extension of the UAE Federal Government in its electronic form.

The Constitution of the United Arab Emirates confers equality, liberty, rule of law, presumption of innocence in legal procedures, inviolability of the home,freedom of movement, freedom of opinion and speech, freedom of communication, freedom of religion, freedom of council and association, freedom of occupation, freedom to be elected to office and others onto all citizens, within the limit of the law.[56] HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

A constitutionally independent judiciary includes the Federal Supreme Court.[57] However, Dubai and Ras al-Khaimah do not belong to the national judiciary. All emirates have their own secular and Islamic law for civil, criminal, and high courts.[58] ACER TravelMate 4230 Series Laptop Keyboard

The court system comprises Sharia courts and civil courts. The Personal Status Law, which is based on Sharia and was enacted in 2005, regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody. In criminal matters a woman’s testimony is worth half of that of a man before a court.[59] Sharia courts have exclusive jurisdiction to hear family disputes, including matters involving divorce, inheritances, child custody, SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

child abuse and guardianship of minors. Sharia courts may, at the federal level only, also hear appeals of certain criminal cases including rape, robbery, driving under the influence of alcohol and related crimes.Dubai and Ras Al Khaimah are not part of the federal judicial system.[60] SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard

Homosexual relationships are illegal: article 80 of the Abu Dhabi Penal Code makes sodomy punishable with imprisonment of up to 14 years, while article 177 of the Penal Code of Dubai imposes imprisonment of up to 10 years on consensual sodomy.[61] Foreigners generally receive deportation, which is sometimes temporary.[62] Prospective foreign employees infected with hepatitis, tuberculosis, SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard

or HIV will not be given work visas and have to leave the country.[63]

During the month of Ramadan, between sunrise and sunset, it is illegal to publicly eat, drink (even water), or smoke. Exceptions are made for pregnant or nursing women, as well as children. This applies to non-Muslims as well as Muslims, and failure to comply may result in arrest.[64] HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

Article 1 of the 1987 Federal Penal Code states that "provisions of the Islamic Law shall apply to the crimes of doctrinal punishment, punitive punishment and blood money."[65] The Federal Penal Code repealed only those provisions within the penal codes of individual Emirates which are contradictory to the Federal Penal Code. Hence, both are enforceable simultaneously.[66]

The Federal Supreme Court ruled that wife beating is not illegal, as long as it leaves no physical marks on the victim.[67] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Confiscation of passports, although illegal, occurs on a large scale, primarily from unskilled or semi-skilled employees.[69]

Labourers often toil in intense heat with temperatures reaching 54 degrees celsius (129 degrees Fahrenheit) in the cities in August. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Temperatures in the desert can be higher. Official temperatures are censored during the summer months – this is a common practice among all Gulf countries.[70] Although attempts have been made since 2009 to enforce a midday break rule, these are frequently flouted. Those labourers who do receive a midday break often have no suitable place to rest.[71] SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M Laptop Keyboard

Police departments and non-Government organizations provide shelter and support for human trafficking victims until they are able to acquire the right documents and many victims are then sent home at the Government’s expense, TOSHIBA Satellite C650-15C Laptop Keyboard

under the Crime Victim Assistance Programme. These shelters include the Dubai Women's and Children's Foundation, which was established in July 2007, and Ewaa in Abu Dhabi, which opened in late 2008, as well as the Human Rights Care Department in Dubai and the Social Support Centre in Abu Dhabi, which have been operating for several years.[55] SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z Laptop Keyboard

The issue of sexual abuse among female domestic servants is an area of concern, particularly given that domestic servants are not covered by the UAE Labor Law of 1980 or the Draft Labor Law of 2007.[72] Worker protests have been cracked down on.[73]

In 2004, the Dubai police opened designated departments in all emirate police stations that are mandated to protect the human rights of both victims and perpetrators of crime.[74] HP Pavilion dv3-2304tx laptop keyboard

Main article: Foreign relations of the United Arab Emirates

The UAE’s liberal climate towards foreign cooperation, investment and modernization has prompted extensive diplomatic and commercial relations with other countries. It plays a significant role in OPEC and the UN, and is one of the founding members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). TOSHIBA Satellite L500-ST2522 laptop keyboard

The Emirates have long maintained close relations with Egypt and remain the highest investor in the country from among the rest of the Arab world.[76] Pakistan had been first to formally recognize the UAE upon its formation and continues to be one of its major economic and trading partners with about 400,000 expatriates receiving employment in the UAE.[77][78] ASUS K030662M2 laptop keyboard

India’s large expat community in the UAE also has over the centuries evolved into current close political, economic and cultural ties. The largest demographic presence in the Emirates is Indian.[79] Following British military withdrawal from UAE in 1971, and the establishment of UAE as a newly formed state, the UAE disputes rights to a number of islands in the Persian Gulf against Iran. However the dispute has not significantly impacted relations because of the large Iranian community presence and strong economic ties.[80] SONY VAIO VGN-CS220J/T laptop keyboard

In its dispute with the USA and Israel, Iran has repeatedly threatened to close the strait at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, a vital oil-trade route.[9]Therefore, in July 2012, the UAE began operating a key overland oil pipeline which bypasses the Strait of Hormuz.

Commercially, the UK and Germany are the UAE’s largest export markets and bilateral relations have long been close as a large number of their nationals reside in the UAE.[81] [82] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Diplomatic relations between UAE and Japan were established as early as UAE's independence in December 1971.[83] The two countries had always enjoyed friendly ties and trade between each other. Exports from the UAE to Japan include crude oil and natural gas and imports from Japan to UAE include cars and electricitems.[83] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The UAE has continuously been a major contributor of emergency relief to regions affected by conflict and natural disasters in the developing world.[80] The main UAE governmental agency for foreign aid is the Abu Dhabi Fund for Development (ADFD) which was established in 1971. Since its establishment, the ADFD has provided over Dh12.6 billion (US$3.45 billion) in soft loans and grants to countries mainly in Africa.[84] COMPAQ Presario CQ45-206TU laptop keyboard

Since 1971, these have accounted for a further Dh10 billion (US$2.7 billion), bringing the total amount of the loans, grants and investments provided by the fund or the Abu Dhabi government, and managed by the fund, to around Dh24 billion (US$6.5 billion), covering 258 different projects in a total of 52 countries.[85] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

In November 2008 the Abu Dhabi Fund announced a long term loan of around US$278 million for rehabilitation of agricultural land in the state of Uzbekistan.[86]Between 1994 to mid-2008, for example, around Dh15.4 billion (US$4.2 billion) has been provided for the Palestinians, including, most recently, US$300 million pledged at a donor conference in Paris and an annual commitment of US$43 million to support the Palestine National Authority.[87] Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard

The UAE has also used the Red Crescent authority and charities such as Dubai Cares and Noor Dubai to donate aid to foreign countries.

See also: Politics of the United Arab Emirates and List of cities in the United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates is divided into seven emirates. Abu Dhabi is the most populated Emirate with 38% of the UAE population. The city of Dubai has a further 30%, so over two-thirds of the UAE population live in either Abu Dhabi or Dubai. SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard

Abu Dhabi has an area of 67,340 square kilometres, which is 86.7% of the country’s total area, excluding the islands. It has a coastline extending for more than 400 kilometres and is divided for administrative purposes into three major regions. The Emirate of Dubai extends along the Persian Gulf coast of the UAE for approximately 72 kilometres. ACER TravelMate 4230 Series laptop keyboard

Dubai has an area of 3,885 square kilometers, which is equivalent to 5% of the country’s total area, excluding the islands. The Emirate of Sharjahextends along approximately 16 kilometers of the UAE’s Persian Gulf coastline and for more than 80 kilometers into the interior. The northern emirates which include Fujairah, Ajman, Ras al-Khaimah, and Umm al-Qaiwain all have a total area of 3,881 square kilometres. There are two areas under joint control. One is jointly controlled by Oman and Ajman, the other by Fujairah and Sharjah. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

There is an Omani exclave surrounded by UAE territory, known as Wadi Madha. It is located halfway between the Musandam peninsula and the rest of Oman in the Emirate of Sharjah. It covers approximately 75 square kilometres (29 sq mi) and the boundary was settled in 1589. The north-east corner of Madha is closest to the Khor Fakkan-Fujairah road, barely 10 metres (33 ft) away. Within the Omani exclave of Madha, COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

is a UAE exclave called Nahwa, also belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah. It is about 8 kilometres (5 mi) on a dirt track west of the town of New Madha. It consists of about forty houses with its own clinic and telephone exchange. HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard

The UAE has a relatively high Human Development Index among Asian continent, ranking forty-first globally.[91] In 2011, UAE is ranked as the 14th best nation in the world for doing business based on its economy and regulatory environment, ranked by the Doing Business 2011 Report published by the World Bank Group[92] SAMSUNG Q330-JS02 Laptop Keyboard

The GDP growth rate for 2010 was 3.20%.[93] CPI inflation in the April 2008 — April 2009 year was 1.9%.[94] The national debtas of June 2009 was $142 billion.[95] In 2009, its GDP, as measured by purchasing power parity, stood at US$ 400.4 billion.[3]With a population of just under 900,000 Abu Dhabi was labeled "The richest city in the world" by a CNN article.[96] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

Petroleum and natural gas exports play an important role in the economy, especially in Abu Dhabi. More than 85% of the UAE's economy was based on the exports of natural resources in 2009.[3][97] The UAE has tried to reduce its dependency on oil exports by diversifying the economy, particularly in the financial, tourism and construction sectors. While Abu Dhabi remained relatively conservative in its approach, Dubai, which has far smaller oil reserves, was bolder in its diversification policy.[9] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Emirati law does not allow trade unions to exist.[98] The right to collective bargaining and the right to strike are not recognised, and the Ministry of Labourhas the power to force workers to go back to work. Migrant workers who participate in a strike can have their work permits cancelled and be deported.[98] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

The UAE's economy, particularly that of Dubai, was badly hit by the financial crisis of 2007–2010.[99] In 2009, the country's economy shrank by 4.00% and the property sector and construction went into decline. However, tourism, trade and the retail sector have remained buoyant and the UAE's overseas investments are expected to support its full economic recovery.[93] Concern remains about the property sector. HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard

Property prices in Dubai fell dramatically when Dubai World, the government construction company, sought to delay a debt payment.[100] The ability to service debt remains a problem.[101] Abu Dhabi gave Dubai a $10bn handout - $4.1bn of it to bail out Dubai World.[9]

The UAE has been spending billions of dollars on infrastructure. These developments are particularly evident in the larger emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. Lenovo 3000 C200 Laptop Keyboard

The northern emirates are rapidly following suit, providing major incentives for developers of residential and commercial property.[102] In addition, UAE President Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan has allocated Dh16 billion (US$4.4 billion) for the construction of road networks, new housing communities, drainage networks and other projects, providing integrated solutions to some infrastructure deficits in these areas.[103] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Roads in the western and southern regions are still relatively undeveloped. This has resulted in the continued use of airplanes as the main or alternative mode of transportation for the residents.[104]

The major ports are Khalifa Port, Mina Zayed, Port Jebel Ali, Port Rashid, Port Khalid, Port Saeed, and Port Khor Fakkan.[105] DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Dubai International Airport was the 6th busiest airport in the world by international passenger traffic in 2008.[106] There are daily flight services between West and East UAE, which is the only convenient option for passengers travelling between the two parts of the country to places such as Sir Bani Yas.[107] SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard

Emirates Airline was the eighth-largest airline in the world in terms of international passengers carried,[108] and fifth-largest[109] in the world in terms of scheduled international passenger-kilometres flown in 2008. Terminal 3 at Dubai International Airport is the second largest building in the world by floor space.[110] HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

A 1,200 km (750 mi) country-wide national railway is under construction which will connect all the major cities and ports.[111] The cost for the railway will be Dh40bn.[111] While primarily for carrying freight, the second stage will include passenger services between Abu Dhabi and Dubai.[111] It will also connect with rail networks in Saudi Arabia and Oman.[111]

The UAE has signed peaceful nuclear agreements with France, United States, and South Korea, and a MOU with the United Kingdom.[112] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

The UAE is presently serviced by two telecommunications operators, Etisalat and Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company ("du"). Etisalat operated a monopoly until du launched mobile services in February 2007.[113] Etisalat is the sixteenth largest telecommunications firm in the world.[114] Forecasts indicate that the UAE mobile market will increase to 11.9 million users by 2012.[115] Based in Abu Dhabi, Etisalat is the 14th largest mobile network operator in the world, with a total customer base of 100 million.[116] TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8832 laptop keyboard

Internet subscribers are expected to increase from 0.904 million in 2007 to 2.66 million in 2012.[117] The authorities filter websites for religious, political and sexual content.[118]

The Dubai Metro is the first urban train network in the Arabian Peninsula.[119] The Red Line when fully complete will carry an estimated 27,000 passengers per hour in each direction on 42 trains.[120] Work also on the Green Line, which will link Al Qusais to Dubai Healthcare City, began in 2006 and is scheduled for completion in late 2010.[121] HP G61-110SA laptop keyboard

he demographics of the UAE is extremely diverse. In 2010, the UAE's population was estimated at 8,264,070,[4] of whom only 13% were UAE nationals or Emiratis,[123] while the majority of the population were expatriates.[124] The country's net migration rate stands at 21.71, the world's highest.[125] In recent years, many expatriates have been demanding citizenship but there is currently no naturalisation process in the UAE.[126] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

With a male/female sex ratio of 2.2 for the total population and 2.75 for the 15–65 age group, the UAE's gender imbalance is second highest in the world after Qatar.[127]

In 2009, Emirati citizens accounted for 16.5% of the total population; South Asian (Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi) constituted the largest group, making up 58.4% of the total; other Asians made up 16.7% while Western expatriates were 8.4% of the total population.[128] SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

There is a growing presence of Europeans especially in multi-cultural cities such as Dubai [129] Western expatriates, from Europe, Australia, Northern Africa, Africa and Latin America make up 500,000 of the UAE population.[128] The UAE has also attracted a small number of expatriates from countries in Europe, North America, SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M laptop keyboard

Asia, and Oceania.[130] More than 100,000 British nationals live in the country.[131] The rest of the population were from other Arab states.[3][132]

The average life expectancy is 76.7 years (2012), higher than for any other Arab country.[133][134] SONY VAIO VGN NR480E laptop keyboard

About 88% of the population of the United Arab Emirates is urban.[135]

Islam is the largest and the official state religion of the UAE, though the government follows a policy of tolerance toward other religions and rarely interferes in the activities of non-Muslims.[136] HP G72-150EF Laptop Keyboard

However, it is illegal in the UAE to spread the ideas of any religion apart from Islam through any form of media as it is considered a form of proselytizing. There are approximately 31 churches throughout the country, one Hindu temple in the region of Bur Dubai,[137] and one Sikh Gurudwara in Jebel Ali. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Based on the Ministry of Economy census in 2005, 76% of the total population was Muslim, 9% Christian, and 15% other (mainly Hindu).[136] Census figures do not take into account the many "temporary" visitors and workers while also counting Baha'is and Druze as Muslim.[136]Non-Islamic religions are mainly followed by foreigners or expatriates. As the majority of the population are non-citizens, SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

of the citizens 85% are Sunni Muslimwhile 15% are Shi'a Muslims.[136] Omani immigrants are mostly Ibadi, while Sufi influences exist too.[138]

Arabic is the national and official language of the United Arab Emirates. The Gulf dialect of Arabic is spoken natively by the Emirati people.[139] English is used as a second language, and as the primary lingua franca. Other widely used languages are Hindi-Urdu and Tagalog, spoken by the large South Asian and Filipino diasporas, respectively. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard

The United Arab Emirates has a diverse and multicultural society.[140] Major holidays in Dubai include Eid al Fitr, which marks the end of Ramadan, and National Day (2 December), which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates.[141] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Five times every day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques which are scattered around the country.[142]Since 2006, the weekend has been Friday-Saturday, as a compromise between Friday's holiness to Muslims and the Western weekend of Saturday-Sunday.[143] DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

Most Emirati males prefer to wear a kandura, an ankle-length white tunic woven from wool or cotton, and most Emirati women wear an abaya, a black over-garment that covers most parts of the body.[144] Western-style clothing is, however, dominant because of the large expatriate population, and this practice is beginning to grow in popularity among Emiratis. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Etiquette is an important aspect of UAE culture and tradition, to which visitors are expected to conform. Recently, many expatriates have disregarded the law and been arrested for indecent clothing at beaches. HP Probook 4320s Laptop Keyboard

 [146] Each of the seven semiautonomous emirates has its own rules about attire. Dubai is the most liberal in that regard, allowing miniskirts and bikinis, while Ras al-Khaimah adopted a rule in April 2013 prohibiting bikinis, as well as tight swimsuits for males, on public beaches; transgressions are punishable by fines.[147]

Literature and poetry SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard

The style and form of ancient poetry in the UAE was strongly influenced by the 8th-century Arab scholar Al Khalil bin Ahmed. The earliest known poet in the UAE is Ibn Majid, who was born between 1432 and 1437 in Ras Al-Khaimah. Coming from a family of successful sailors, Ibn Majid's oeuvre has a total of 40 surviving compositions, 39 of which are verses. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ72B laptop keyboard

The greatest luminaries in the UAE literary realm during the 20th century, particularly for Classical Arabic poetry, were Mubarak Al Oqaili (1880–1954), Salem bin Ali al Owais (1887–1959) and Ahmed bin Sulayem (1905–1976). Three other poets from Sharjah, known as the Hirah group, are observed to have been heavily influenced by the Apollo and romantic poets.[148]  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

There are three annual book fairs in the UAE, the well-known Sharjah International Book Fair, the oldest and largest in the country, its Abu Dhabi counterpart and the newly launched Al-Ain Book Fair. Packard Bell Easynote TM98 laptop keyboard

Many emirates have established museums of regional repute, most famously Sharjah with its Heritage District containing 17 museums,[149] which in 1998 was the Cultural Capital of the Arab World.[150] Abu Dhabi's cultural foundation is also an important place for the presentation of indigenous and foreign art. In Dubai, the area of Al Quoz has attracted a number of art galleries as well as museums such as the Salsali Private Museum.[151] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4112 laptop keyboard

Abu Dhabi has embarked on the path to become an art center of international caliber, by creating a culture district on Saadiyat Island. There, six grand projects are planned: the Sheikh Zayed National Museum by Foster + Partners, the modern art museum Guggenheim Abu Dhabi to be built by Frank Gehry, the classical museum Louvre Abu Dhabi by Jean Nouvel, a maritime museum by Tadao Ando, a Performing Arts Center by Zaha Hadid, and a Biennale Park with 16 pavilions.[152] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

Dubai also plans to build a Kunsthal museum and a district for galleries and artists.[153]

2009 saw the UAE’s first pavilion at the Venice Biennale, one of the top cultural events in Europe. The pavilion was called ‘It’s Not You, SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard

It’s Me’ and was designed to offer a playful and provocative look at what has been described as the world’s most prestigious contemporary art event. This was the first occasion on which a country from the Persian Gulf has taken part in the Biennale. IBM Thinkpad Z60m laptop keyboard

The UAE is an important for TV and media. Dubai Media City and twofour54, Abu Dhabi's media zone, were set up to attract key players. Organisations including Reuters, CNN, Sony and Fox have moved in. HP Pavilion dv6-2150es laptop keyboard

The UAE is home to major pan-Arab broadcasters, including the Middle East Broadcasting Centre and Orbit Showtime Network. Sky News Arabia was launched from Abu Dhabi in 2012. On 25 September 2007 Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum decreed that journalists can no longer be prosecuted or imprisoned for reasons relating to their work, setting a first for the decriminalisation of media offenses in the region.[157] SONY KFRMBA152A laptop keyboard

The UAE has made it illegal to disseminate online material that can threaten "public order". Prison terms have been given to those who "deride or damage" the reputation of the state and "display contempt" for religion.[158] Packard Bell Easynote TM81 laptop keyboard

The UAE has a booming magazine and newspaper industry. the biggest selling English language magazine is Ahlan! magazine. The biggest selling English language newspaper is Gulf News.

The traditional food of the Emirates has always been rice, fish, and meat. The people of the United Arab Emirates have adopted most of their foods from the surrounding countries including Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Oman. SONY VAIO VGN-N17G laptop keyboard

Seafood has been the mainstay of the Emirati diet for centuries. Meat and rice are other staple foods; lamb and mutton are the more favored meats, then goat and beef. Popular beverages are coffee and tea, which can be supplemented with cardamom, saffron, or mint to give them a distinct flavor.[159] HP G72-150EF laptop keyboard

Muslims are prohibited from eating pork, so it is not included in Arab menus. Hotels frequently have pork substitutes such as beef sausages and veal rashers on their breakfast menus. If pork is available, it is clearly labeled as such. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Alcohol is generally only served in hotel restaurants and bars (but not in Sharjah). All nightclubs and golf clubs are permitted to sell alcohol. Specific supermarkets may sell alcohol and pork, but these products are sold in separate sections.[160] HP Pavilion dv6-2020sa laptop keyboard

Football is the most popular sport in the UAE. Emirati football clubs Al-Ain, Al-Wasl, Al-Shabbab ACD, Al-Sharjah, Al-Wahda, and Al-Ahli are the most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions.[161] ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard

The great rivalries keep the UAE energized as people fill the streets when their favorite team wins. The United Arab Emirates Football Association was first established in 1971 and since then has dedicated its time and effort to promoting the game, organizing youth programs and improving the abilities of not only its players, but of the officials and coaches involved with its regional teams. The UAE national football team qualified for theFIFA World Cup in 1990 with Egypt. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard

It was the third consecutive World Cup with two Arab nations qualifying, after Kuwait andAlgeria in 1982, and Iraq and Algeria again in 1986. The UAE won the Gulf Cup Championship two times.They won the first cup in January 2007 held in Abu Dhabi and has won the recent cup in January 2013 held in Bahrain.[162] HP Mini 110-1033cl Laptop Keyboard

Cricket is one of the most popular sports in the UAE, largely because of the expatriate population from the Indian subcontinent, the United Kingdom, and Australia. The Sharjah Cricket Association Stadium in Sharjah has hosted 4 international test cricket matches so far.[163] Sheikh Zayed Stadium and Al Jazira Mohammed Bin Zayed Stadium in Abu Dhabialso hosted international cricket matches. ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

Dubai has two cricket stadiums (Dubai Cricket Ground No.1 and No.2) with a third, 'S3' currently under construction as part of Dubai Sports City. Dubai is also home to the International Cricket Council.[164] The UAE national cricket team qualified for the 1996 Cricket World Cup and narrowly missed out on qualification for the 2007 Cricket World Cup.[165] DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard

Formula One is particularly popular in the United Arab Emirates, and is annually held at the picturesque Yas Marina Circuit. The race is held at evening time, and is the first ever Grand Prix to start in daylight and finish at night.[166] FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 Laptop Keyboard

 Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

The education system through secondary level is monitored by the Ministry of Education in all emirates except Abu Dhabi, where it falls under the authority of the Abu Dhabi Education Council. It consists of primary schools, middle schools andhigh schools.[168] The public schools are government-funded and the curriculum is created to match the United Arab Emirates development's goals and values. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The medium of instruction in the public school is Arabic with emphasis on English as a second language. There are also many private schools which are internationally accredited. Public schools in the country are free for citizens of the UAE, while the fees for private schools vary.

The higher education system is monitored by the Ministry of Higher Education. The ministry also is responsible for admitting students to its undergraduate institutions.[169] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

The literacy rate in 2007 was 91%.[170][171] Currently there are thousands of nationals pursuing formal learning at 86 adult education centres spread across the country.[172]

The UAE has shown a strong interest in improving education and research. Enterprises include the establishment of the CERTResearch Centers and the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology and Institute for Enterprise Development.[173] ASUS A3H laptop keyboard

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the United Arab Emirates University (1167th worldwide), the American University of Sharjah (2447th) and Higher Colleges of Technology (2614th).[174] SONY VAIO VGN-NW50JB laptop keyboard

The life expectancy at birth in the UAE is at 78.5 years.[134] Cardiovascular disease is the principal cause of death in the UAE, constituting 28% of total deaths; other major causes are accidents and injuries, malignancies, and congenital anomalies.[175] HP Pavilion dv6-2190us laptop keyboard

In February 2008, the Ministry of Health unveiled a five-year health strategy for the public health sector in the northern emirates, which fall under its purview and which, unlike Abu Dhabi and Dubai, do not have separate healthcare authorities. The strategy focuses on unifying healthcare policy and improving access to healthcare services at reasonable cost, DELL Latitude D510 laptop keyboard

SONY VAIO VGN-FS195VP laptop keyboard

at the same time reducing dependence on overseas treatment. The ministry plans to add three hospitals to the current 14, and 29 primary healthcare centres to the current 86. Nine were scheduled to open in 2008.[176] SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard

The introduction of mandatory health insurance in Abu Dhabi for expatriates and their dependents was a major driver in reform of healthcare policy. Abu Dhabi nationals were brought under the scheme from 1 June 2008 and Dubai followed for its government employees. Eventually, under federal law, every Emirati and expatriate in the country will be covered by compulsory health insurance under a unified mandatory scheme.[177] Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard

Recently the country has been benefiting from medical tourists from all over the GCC. The UAE currently attracts medical tourists seeking plastic surgery and advanced procedures, cardiac and spinal surgery, and dental treatment, as health services have higher standards than other Arab countries in the Persian Gulf.[178] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim.

Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and the purpose of existence is to love and serve God.[1] Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets.[2]  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

They maintain that the previous messages and revelations have been partially misinterpreted or altered over time,[3] but consider the Arabic Qur'an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God.[4] Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship,  ASUS X53K Laptop Keyboard

and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking and welfare, to warfare and the environment.[5][6]

Most Muslims are of two denominations, Sunni (75–90%),[7] or Shia (10–20%).[8] About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia,[9]the largest Muslim-majority country, 25% in South Asia,[9] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

20% in the Middle East,[10] and 15% in Sub-saharan Africa.[11]Sizable minorities are also found in China, Russia, and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world (see Islam by country). With about 1.57 billion followers or 23% of earth's population,[11][12][13]Islam is the second-largest religion and one of the fastest-growing religions in the world. HP G61-452EE Laptop Keyboard

Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, safeness and peace.[21] In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".[22][23] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by serving God, following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses, DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[24]

Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[25] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[26] In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence), DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

where islām is defined theologically as Tawhid, historically by asserting that Muhammad is messenger of God, and doctrinally by mandating five basic and fundamental pillars of practice.[27][28] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat(Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[3] The Qur'an (literally, “Reading” or “Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature work in the Arabic language.[42][43] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through thearchangel Gabriel (Jibrīl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632 CE.[44] While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[45] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[46] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[47] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[48] Rules governing proper pronunciation is called tajwid. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

Muslims usually view "the Qur'an" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an.[49] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: أنۢبياء‎ anbiyāʾ ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qurʼan, the descendants of Abraham were chosen by God to bring the "will of God" to the peoples of the nations. GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard

Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theologysays that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Qurʼan mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[50] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr laptop keyboard

which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as the words of God repeated by Muhammad differing from the Quran in that they are expressed in Prophet Muhammad's words, whereas the Qur'an is understood as the direct words of God. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.[51] TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة‎) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time ofQiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[52] TOSHIBA Satellite L300-14G laptop keyboard

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds. The Qurʼan in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (99:8)." The Qurʼan lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief in God (Arabic: كفر‎ kufr), ACER Aspire 5738PZG laptop keyboard

and dishonesty; however, the Qurʼan makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer and compassion towards animals,[53][54] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qurʼanic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[55] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Qur'an as Yawm ad-Dīn (Arabic: يوم الدين‎), "Day of Religion";[56] as-sāʿah (Arabic: الساعة‎), "the Last Hour";[57] and al-Qāriʿah (Arabic: القارعة‎), "The Clatterer".[58] FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 laptop keyboard

Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة), must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.[64] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`).[65] ACER PK13ZLH0100 laptop keyboard

Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such asminarets.[66] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The Shariʻah (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. Shariʻah "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his or her religious belief".[76] HP Pavilion dv5-1132la Laptop Keyboard

The Quran set the rights, the responsibilities and the rules for people and for societies to adhere to. Muhammad provided an example, which is recorded in the hadith books, showing people how he practically implemented these rules in a society. After the passing ofMuhammad, Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, whose views some Shiʻis follow, and Imams Abu Hanifa and Malik ibn Anas, HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Laptop Keyboard

whose views some Sunnis follow, worked together in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina along with over 70 other leading jurists and scholars. They did not distinguish between each other or classify them selves as Sunni or Shiʻah. They felt that they were following the religion of Abraham.[77] They were against the formation of sects as it was forbidden in the Quran [78]. TOSHIBA Satellite A110 Series Laptop Keyboard

They decided on new legal matters where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the Hadith regarding a similar case. In the books actually written by these original jurists and scholars, there are very few theological and judicial differences between them. Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. Much of it has evolved to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion, known as bid'ah.

These scholars were taught by Muhammad's companions, many of whom settled in Madina. Much of the knowledge we have about Muhammad is narrated through Aisha, the wife of Muhammad. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-201EP Laptop Keyboard

Aisha raised and taught her nephew Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr the grandson of Abu Bakr and the grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq. Aishas also taught her nephew Urwah ibn Zubayr. He then taught his son Hisham ibn Urwah, who was the main teacher of Malik ibn Anas whose views many Sunni follow. SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

Many of the differences are regarding Sharia laws devised through Ijtihad where there is no such ruling in the Quran or the Hadiths of Islamic prophet Muhammadregarding a similar case. As these jurists went to new areas, they were pragmatic and in some cases continued to use the same ruling as was given in that area during pre-Islamic times. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

If the population felt comfortable with it, it was just and they used Ijtihad to deduce that it did not conflict with the Quran or the Hadith. This made it easier for the different communities to integrate into the Islamic State and that assisted in the quick expansion of the Islamic State. HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard

The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). To reduce the divergence, in the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.[79] Compaq Presario CQ57-229wm laptop keyboard

According to ash-Shafi'i, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Hadith (the practice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). Al-Shafi'i also codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith. Muhammad al-Bukhari[80] Compaq Presario CQ42 laptop keyboard

then travelled around and collected over 300,000 hadith, but only included 2,602 distinct hadith in his book Sahih al-Bukhari,[80] that passed these tests and he codified as authentic and correct. Sahih al-Bukhari is therefore considered by many to be the most authentic book after the Quran.[81][82] The Arabic word sahih translates as authentic or correct. HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard

They all gave priority to the Qur'an and the Hadith and felt that Islam was completed during the time of Muhammad and they wanted people to refer to the Quran.[83] Ahmad ibn Hanbal rejected the writing down and codifying of the religious rulings he gave. They knew that they might have fallen into error in some of their judgements and stated this clearly. They never introduced their rulings by saying, "This is the judgement of God and His prophet."[84] There is also very little text actually written down by Jafar al-Sadiq himself. HP Mini 110-3110sp laptop keyboard

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, HP AEAX8U00010 laptop keyboard

Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer.

The differences between the denominations in Islam are primarily political and amplified after the Safavid invasion of Persia in the 1500s and the subsequentSafavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam due to the politics between the Safavids and the Ottoman Empire.[85] Before that point Jafar al-Sadiq disapproved of people who disapproved of his great grand father Abu Bakr the first caliph. SONY VAIO VGN-N11M laptop keyboard

HP Pavilion ze5623 laptop keyboard

单击此处进行编辑.

Doha

Doha is the capital city of the state of Qatar. Located on the coast of the Persian Gulf, it had a population of 998,651 in 2008,[1] and is also one of themunicipalities of Qatar. Doha is Qatar's largest city, with over 60% of the nation's population residing in Doha or its surrounding suburbs, and is also the economic centre of the country. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

Doha also serves as the seat of government of Qatar, which is ruled by Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani. Doha is home to the Education City, an area devoted to research and education. Doha was the site of the first ministerial-level meeting of the Doha Development Round of World Trade Organization negotiations. DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

The city of Doha held the 2006 Asian Games, which was the largest Asian Games ever held. Doha also hosted the 2011 Pan Arab Games and most of the games at the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. Doha hosted the UNFCCC Climate Negotiations (COP 18)December 2012 and will host a large number of the venues for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. The World Petroleum Councilheld the 20th World Petroleum Conference in Doha in December 2011.[2] HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

In 1825, the city of Doha was founded under the name Al-Bidda. The name "Doha" came from the Arabic ad-dawḥa, "the big tree." The reference might be to a prominent tree that stood at the site where the original fishing village arose, on the eastern coast of the Qatar peninsula. Or it might have been derived from "dohat" --ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

Arabic for bay or gulf — referring to the Doha Bay area surrounding Corniche. In 1825, during the war between Qatar andBahrain, Doha had been severely damaged and Abu Dhabi was helping Bahrain.[3] In 1882, Al Rayyan built the Al Wajbah fortress, in southwestern Doha. The following year, Sheikh Qassim bin Mohammed Al Thani led a Qatari army to victory against the Ottomans.

The city was made capital of the British protectorate of Qatar in 1916, and became the nation's capital following the independence of Qatar in 1971. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

In 1917, the Al Koot Fort fortress, which is located in the center of the city, was built by Sheikh Abdulla Bin Qassim Al-Thani. Still, during the early 20th century, much of Qatar's economy depended on fishing and pearling, and Doha had about 350 pearling boats. However, after the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearls in the 1930s,  IBM Lenovo ThinkPad R50E Laptop Keyboard

the whole region, including the town of Doha, suffered a major depression and Qatar was plunged into poverty. This lasted until in the late 1930s, when oilwas discovered. However, the exploration and exportation was halted due to the second world war. Today the nation as a whole produces over 800,000 barrels of oil daily. In 1969, the Government House opened. Today it is considered to be Qatar's most prominent landmark. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

The first mention of Al Bidda in English sources appeared in 1765, on a rather inaccurate map by Carsten Niebhur, in which Al Bidda is referred to as Guttur. Carsten had not visited Qatar personally, and had relied on the knowledge of local Arabs and English sea captains to fill in this section of his map. In the nineteenth century, Doha was little more than a small village which was known as Al Bidda. In 1820, Major Colebrook described it thus: Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

However, the small size of the place didn't stop it from being bombarded by the British vessel Vestal in 1821, after the city had been deemed to have broken a general treaty of peace. They were bombed again in 1841 after Al-Suwaidi, the Sudanese chief who then ruled Al Bidda, ACER TravelMate 4230 Series Laptop Keyboard

was accused of habouring an outlaw, and the village was destroyed in 1847 after its leader – Bin Tarif Bin Salamah – had been killed in battle against the Al Khalifas of Bahrain near Fuweirat. These major disturbances were probably also punctuated by the customary raids of the nomadic Bedouin; raids which would not stop for another hundred years. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

At some point after this destruction, the Al Thani family moved from Fuwairet to Al Bidda, for when the British Resident visited the village he found that Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani was now chief of Doha. Doha was now a separate village close to Al Bidda, and in between Al Bidda and Doha lay little Doha, only four hundred yards form Al Bidda. Paradoxically, the roots of its future as the capital of Qatar lay when Doha, along with Al Wakrah, SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard

were attacked again – by Bahrain in 1867, aided by Abu Dhabi. Doha and Al Wakra attempted to retaliate in a very bloody sea battle.

The British, who wished to avoid disruption to trade and were angry that the Al Khalifas of Bahrain had broken a treaty forbidding maritime warfare in the area, came to Qatar and were met by the headman of Al Bidda, Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani, on behalf of "all the Sheikhs and tribes" in the peninsula. This meeting was, eventually, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

to lead to Qatar becoming a nation state under the Al Thanis. For a time Ottomans took up a rather nominal control of the country, with a base in Doha, with the acquiescence of Qassim Al Thani, who wished to consolidate his control of the area. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

However, disagreement over tribute and interference in internal affairs arose which eventually led to battle in 1893. The Ottomans were defeated and retreated to their small fort in the centre of Doha, where they remained until they finally left during the first world war. Partly as a result of the departure of the Ottomans, Qatar was made a formal British protectorate in 1916, with Doha as its capital. TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard

At about 1900 Doha had a population of around 12,000 and around 350 pearling boats. However, the growth of trade in cultured pearls from Japan began to impact upon the region, and this was exacerbated by the depression of the 1930s. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X301 2779 Laptop Keyboard

The exploitation of Qatar's oil reserves after the end of the second world war was to save the city, although it was to be some time before the source of their current and future wealth – natural gas – was exploited. ACER Aspire 5745 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Buildings at the time were simple dwellings of one or two rooms, built from mud, stone and coral. However, the Amirs of Qatar were not long in exploiting the new-found wealth, and slum areas were quickly razed to be replaced by more modern buildings. As with other countries in the region, in this rush to modernize much of the country’s heritage was lost, and in Doha now there is only a single remaining wind tower. SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M Laptop Keyboard

The Qatar Museums Authority now works to preserve the remaining heritage. The astonishing development of Doha, and the changing shape of the bay, can be seen to this day in Qatar’s National Museum. Doha was a port of some local significance. However, the shallow water of the bay prevented bigger ships from entering the port until the 1970s, when its deep-water port was completed. Further changes followed with extensive land reclamation, which led to the crescent-shaped bay that we can see today. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-15C Laptop Keyboard

In 1973, the University of Qatar opened, and in 1975 the Qatar National Museum opened in what was originally the ruler's palace in 1912. The Al Jazeera Arabicsatellite television news channel began broadcasting from Doha in 1996. Sheikh Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani currently rules in what some consider to be Qatar's most beautiful city. SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z Laptop Keyboard

Doha has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Temperatures average over 38 °C (100 °F) from May to September, and humidity is variable. Dewpoints can surpass 25 °C (77 °F) in the summer. During the summer months, the city averages almost no precipitation, and less than 20 mm (0.79 in) during other months.[5] Rainfall is scarce, at an average of 75 mm (2.95 in) per annum, falling on isolated days mostly between October to March. Winters are warm, and the temperature rarely drops below 7 °C (45 °F). HP Pavilion dv3-2304tx laptop keyboard

The demography of Doha is unusual in that the majority of residents are expatriates, with Qatari nationals forming a minority. The largest portion of expatriates in Qatar are from South-East and South Asian countries, mainly Pakistan, India, TOSHIBA Satellite L500-ST2522 laptop keyboard

Sri Lanka, Nepal, Philippines, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, with large numbers of expatriates also coming from the Levant Arab countries, North Africa, and East Asia. Doha is also home to expatriates from Germany, the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, France, South Africa, and Australia as well as many other countries from all over the world. ASUS K030662M2 laptop keyboard

In the past, expatriates in Qatar were not allowed to own land; however, now people who are not Qatari citizens can buy land in several areas of Doha, including the West Bay Lagoon, the Qatar Pearl and the new Lusail City. Ownership by foreigners in Qatar entitles them to a renewable residency permit, which allows them to live and work in Qatar. SONY VAIO VGN-CS220J/T laptop keyboard

Each month, thousands emigrate to Qatar, and as a result, Doha has witnessed explosive growth rates in population. Doha's population currently stands at around one million,[6] with the population of the city more than doubling in the past decade. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Due to the high influx of expatriates, the Qatari housing market saw a shortage of supply which led to a rise in prices and increased inflation. The gap in the housing market between supply and demand has narrowed, however, and property prices have fallen in some areas following a period which saw rents triple in some areas.[7] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

According to Qatar Chamber, expatriate workers have remitted $60bn between 2006 and 2012. 54 percent of the workers' remittances of $60bn were routed to Asian countries, followed by Arab nations that accounted for nearly half that volume (28 percent). India was the top destination of the remittances, followed by the Philippines, while the US, Egypt and the neighbouring UAE trailed.[8] COMPAQ Presario CQ45-206TU laptop keyboard

Several churches have recently been constructed in Doha, following decrees by the Emir for the allocation of land to churches. In March 2008, the first Catholic Church in Doha, Our Lady of the Rosary, was opened. The church structure is discreet and Christian symbols are not displayed on the outside of the building.[9]Today, several churches exist in Doha, including the Malankara Orthodox Church, Mar Thoma Church (affiliated with the Anglicans, but not part of the Communion), CSI Church, Syro-Malankara Church and the Pentecostal Church. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

Much of Qatar's oil and natural gas wealth is visible in Doha, which is the economic centre of Qatar. Doha is home to the headquarters of the country's largest oil and gas companies, including Qatar Petroleum, Qatargas and RasGas. Doha's economy is built on the revenue the country has made from its oil and natural gas industries, and the Qatari government is rapidly trying to diversify the Qatari economy in order to move away from this dependence on oil. Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard

As a result, Doha is currently experiencing a very large boom, with the city developing very rapidly – this is mostly the result of Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa's modernization program.

Like the nearby city of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, Doha's economy is moving away from its dependency on the oil and natural gas industries, although unlike Dubai, Doha's main focus is not tourism. Doha is seeing huge amounts of growth, with the population of the city increasing by more than 30,000 between 2004 and 2006; SONY VAIO VGN-N130G/B laptop keyboard

this has caused a boom in the real estate sector, with real estate prices skyrocketing.[19] According to the BBC, as of late January 2007, Doha is now a more expensive city than Dubai in terms of real estate prices. This rate of growth has led to projects such as the Lusail City project, which is being constructed north of Doha and will eventually house 200,000 people. ACER TravelMate 4230 Series laptop keyboard

Construction is also booming in Doha, a result of increasing corporate and commercial activity there. This is most visible with the changing skyline of the city, as Doha has over 50 towers currently being constructed, the largest of which is theDubai Towers. At the same time, 39 new hotels are joining Qatar's booming tourism market, adding about 9,000 new rooms by 2009.

Qatar Airways is headquartered in the Qatar Airways Tower in Doha.[20] Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

Education has been a major focus of the Qatari government in recent years. In addition to Qatar University, established in 1973, the government has solicited other universities to establish campuses in Doha, most notably at Education City. Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

Education City is one of the main projects of the non-profit organization Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development. It has also launched the World Innovation Summit for Education (WISE), a global forum that brings together education stakeholders, opinion leaders and decision makers from all over the world to discuss educational issues. The first edition will be held in Doha, Qatar from November 16 to 18, 2009. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

A key player in the educational field in Qatar is the Supreme Council of Communication and Information Technology ictQATAR. Through its e-education program, ictQATAR is bringing together the power of education and ICT in Qatar.

Doha is also home to many international schools established for its expatriate communities, with dozens of different private schools currently operating in the city, such as SONY VAIO VGN-NW15L laptop keyboard

The Wall Stadium would become the world's largest underground stadium, dwarfing the Fjellhallen ice-hockey arena in Norway, and would be the main venue for the 2011 AFC Asian Cup.[25] The stadium is estimated to cost 20 million dollars. The stadium will have the latest technology and roads leading to the stadium will be easy. While the New Paralympic stadium south of the new City of Lusail will be the most advance Paralympic stadium. SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard

In 2001, Qatar also became the first country in the Middle East to hold a women's tennis tournament: Qatar holds both the Qatar Open for Women and the ladies ITF tournament. Since 2008 and at least for 3 years, the Sony Ericsson Championships (equivalent to the ATP's season-ending Championships) takes place in Doha, in the Khalifa International Tennis Complex, HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

and features record prize money of $4.45 million (check of $1,485,000 for the winner, which represents the largest single guaranteed payout in women's tennis today[26]).

Doha submitted a bid for the 2016 Olympics.[27] On June 4, 2008, the city was eliminated from the shortlist for the 2016 Olympic Games. On August 26, 2011 it was confirmed that Doha would bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.[28] Doha however failed to become a Candidate City for the 2020 Games.[29] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

HP Probook 4320s Laptop Keyboard

In November 2009, Doha hosted the The Oryx Cup World Championship. This is a hydroplane boat race in the H1 Unlimited season. The race took place in Doha Bay on the Persian Gulf. The H1 Unlimited and the Qatar Marine Sports Federation (QMSF) agreed to have the final race of the 2009 H1 Unlimited unlimited hydroplane season in Doha. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

Ten of the fastest racing boats in the world traveled to Doha November 2009 for the inaugural Oryx Cup event—the H1 Unlimited World Championship—as a result of an Agreement in Principle reached January 9 between the ABRA and the QMSF. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

In December 2010, Qatar won the rights to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and bring the event to the region for the first time. As a result of Qatar's harsh summers and the small population of the country, the bid contained several unique elements which were unprecedented in World Cup history. The winning bid proposed that all stadiums constructed to host the World Cup would be built as air conditioned indoor venues, HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard

in order to ensure that the event could be held in summer.

Education City is an initiative of Qatar Foundation for Education, Science and Community Development. Located on the outskirts of Doha, the capital of Qatar, Education City covers 14 square kilometers and houses educational facilities from school age to research level and branch campuses of some of the world's leading universities. SAMSUNG Q330-JS02 Laptop Keyboard

Education City aims to be the center of educational excellence in the region, instructing students in fields of critical importance to theGulf Cooperation Council region. It is also conceived of as a forum where universities share research and forge relationships with businesses and institutions in public and private sectors. Mozah bint Nasser Al Missned was a driving force behind the foundation and construction of Education City. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani (Arabic: الشيخ حمد بن خليفة آل ثاني‎, born 1 January 1952) has been the ruling Emirof the State of Qatar since 1995.[1][2] Sheikh Hamad was the appointed Heir Apparent of Qatar between 1977 and 1995 and at the same time Minister of Defense.[3] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

In the early 1980s he led the Supreme Planning Council, which sets the Qatar's basic economic and social policies. Starting in 1992, Hamad had a growing responsibility for the day-to-day running of the country,[4] including the development of Qatar's oil and natural gas resources. On 27 June 1995, after deposing his father in a palace coup, Sheikh Hamad became Emir of Qatar and was crowned on 20 June 2000.[4] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

The Emir is famous for helping to establish the first Arab international news network, Al Jazeera, when he provided a loan of QAR 500 million ($137 million) to sustain Al Jazeera through its first five years. In late 2012 and early 2013 the Emir was accused of providing financial and material support to terrorist organizations such as Hamas,[5] HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard

Ansar Dine,[6] and the Al-Nusra Front.[7]

In the early 1980s, Hamad led the Supreme Planning Council, which sets the Qatar's basic economic and social policies. Starting in 1992, Hamad's father handed over responsibility for the day-to-day running of the country,[4] Lenovo 3000 C200 Laptop Keyboard

including the development of Qatar's oil and natural gas resources. With the support of his family, Sheikh Hamad took control of the country in 1995 while his father was on vacation abroad.[4] While his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani was in Geneva, Switzerland, Hamad bin Khalifa deposed him in a bloodless 1995 coup d'état.[8] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Hamad bin Khalifa engaged an American law firm to freeze his father's bank accounts abroad, thereby defeating a possible countercoup.[4]Thereafter, his father lived in exile in France and Abu Dhabi[8] until he returned to Qatar in 2004. DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

The Emir is considered to be progressive among leaders of Muslim countries.[citation needed] In a break with the traditional role, his second wife Sheikha Mozah bint Nasser Al Missned has been a visible advocate for education and children's causes.[4] SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard

A sportsman[9] and an accomplished diver, Hamad has played an active role in promoting and developing athletics in Qatar. His activism has enhanced the country's involvement and performance in a number of international competitions, including: HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

winning an Olympic medal in track and field; hosting a wide variety of international sporting events such as the 15th Asian Games, GCC, Asian and World Youth soccer championships; and initiating theQatar Open Tennis Championship which has grown to become one of two premier tennis competitions in the Middle East. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

Under his rule the Qatari government helped to fund the Al Jazeera news network, funding it by an emiri decree.[10] In an analysis of Al Jazeera, Hugh Miles claimed that diplomats from other countries know that the Emir is the real power behind Al Jazeera but he also quotes a network spokesman denying 'countless times' this accusation, HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

adding that many independent news sources also have subsidies from their respective governments without this implying editorial dabbling and explaining that trying to coerce the kind of journalists Al Jazeera has would be like trying to 'herd cats'.[11] Sheik Hamad is a distant cousin of the network chairman, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Hamad bin Thamer Al Thani, who was previously Minister of Information in the Emir Al-Thani government. Following the initial US$137 million grant from Emir Al-Thani, Al Jazeera had aimed to become self-sufficient through advertising by 2001, but when this failed to occur, the Emir agreed to several consecutive loans[11] on a year-by-year basis (US$30 million in 2004,[12]according to Arnaud de Borchgrave). TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

"[13][14] The Washington Postreported in 2005 that Sheik Hamad was under pressure to privatize the network.[15]

The emir made a $100 million donation for the relief of New Orleans following the 2005 Hurricane Katrina.[16] SONY KFRMBA152A laptop keyboard

In 2012, the emir proposed deploying Arab troops to reduce killings in the Syrian civil war.[17]

He has provided two military bases for foreign troops, Al Udeid Air Base and Camp As Sayliyah.

Despite the prevalence of anti-Israel sentiment within the Arab world, he had previously maintained friendly relations with Israel.[8] HP Pavilion dv6-2150es laptop keyboard

He met Foreign Minister of Israel Tzipi Livni (25 September 2007) in New York. This marked the first real attempt by any leader in the Persian Gulf to pursue dialogue with Israel.[18][19]However, Qatar severed diplomatic ties with Israel in 2009 in response to Israel's actions during the Gaza War.[20] The emir has also expressed his objection toIsraeli settlement policy, especially the Judaization of Jerusalem.[21] Packard Bell Easynote TM81 laptop keyboard

Media sources claimed that Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani made a bid for Manchester United on 11 February 2011. Qatari Holdings offered £1.65 billion toMalcolm Glazer, the current American owner of the club.[35] This follows a series of endeavors by the Emir and other Qataris into the World Football community, SONY VAIO VGN-N17G laptop keyboard

following Qatar's successful bid for the 2022 World Cup, and the Qatar Foundation's recent £125m shirt deal with FC Barcelona. In mid-June 2011, rumours resurfaced that Qatari Holdings were preparing a £2 Billion takeover bid and that the funding, that the club had been using for transfers since the start of June, HP G72-150EF laptop keyboard

was actually supplied by the Qataris and not the Glazer Family.[36] In 2012 it was rumoured that Sheik Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani was in bid for Rangers F.C..[37] On 30 March 2012 sheik Al Thani offered to buy KF Tirana, although the details aren't published yet.[38] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalizeinternational trade. The organization officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948.[5] HP Pavilion dv6-2020sa laptop keyboard

The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8832 laptop keyboard

which are signed by representatives of member governments[6]:fol.9–10 and ratified by their parliaments.[7] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994). HP G61-110SA laptop keyboard

The organization is attempting to complete negotiations on the Doha Development Round, which was launched in 2001 with an explicit focus on addressing the needs of developing countries. As of June 2012, the future of the Doha Round remains uncertain: the work programme lists 21 subjects in which the original deadline of 1 January 2005 was missed, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

and the round is still incomplete.[8] The conflict between free trade on industrial goods and services but retention of protectionism on farm subsidies to domestic agricultural sector(requested by developed countries) and the substantiation of the international liberalization of fair tradeon agricultural products (requested by developing countries) remain the major obstacles. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

These points of contention have hindered any progress to launch new WTO negotiations beyond the Doha Development Round. As a result of this impasse, there has been an increasing number of bilateral free trade agreements signed.[9] As of July 2012, there are various negotiation groups in the WTO system for the current agricultural trade negotiation which is in the condition of stalemate.[10] SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M laptop keyboard

WTO's current Director-General is Pascal Lamy, who leads a staff of over 600 people in Geneva, Switzerland.

The WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international economic cooperation – notably the Bretton Woods institutionsknown as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. SONY VAIO VGN NR480E laptop keyboard

A comparable international institution for trade, named theInternational Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, HP G72-150EF Laptop Keyboard

and commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the U.S. and a few other signatories and never went into effect.[12][13][14]

In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GATT would over the years "transform itself" into a de factointernational organization.[15] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT. The first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules,  SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

and in others broke entirely new ground. Because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called "codes". Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard

Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two.[16] SONY VAIO VGN-NW50JB laptop keyboard

Well before GATT's 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizingworld economy.[20][21] In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), HP Pavilion dv6-2190us laptop keyboard

the eighth GATT round – known as the Uruguay Round – was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay.[20]

It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; DELL Latitude D510 laptop keyboard

all the original GATT articles were up for review.[21] The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing the WTO regime was signed 15 April 1994, during the ministerial meeting at Marrakesh, Morocco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.[22] SONY VAIO VGN-FS195VP laptop keyboard

The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).[20] GATT 1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The agreements fall into a structure with six main parts: SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard

The highest decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements. Theinaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in 1996. Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard

Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the "Singapore issues". The second ministerial conference was held in Geneva in Switzerland. The third conference in Seattle, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Washington ended in failure, with massive demonstrations and police and National Guard crowd control efforts drawing worldwide attention. The fourth ministerial conference was held in Doha in the Persian Gulf nation of Qatar. The Doha Development Roundwas launched at the conference. The conference also approved the joining of China, which became the 143rd member to join. The fifth ministerial conference was held in Cancún, SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard

Mexico, aiming at forging agreement on the Doha round. An alliance of 22 southern states, the G20 developing nations (led by India, China,[25]Brazil, ASEAN led by the Philippines), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called "Singapore issues" and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The talks broke down without progress. SONY VAIO VGN-FZ72B laptop keyboard

The sixth WTO ministerial conference was held in Hong Kong from 13–18 December 2005. It was considered vital if the four-year-old Doha Development Round negotiations were to move forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. In this meeting, countries agreed to phase out all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and terminate any cotton export subsidies by the end of 2006.  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Further concessions to developing countries included an agreement to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the Least Developed Countries, following the Everything but Arms initiative of the European Union — but with up to 3% of tariff lines exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation to be completed by the end of 2010. Packard Bell Easynote TM98 laptop keyboard

The WTO General Council, on 26 May 2009, agreed to hold a seventh WTO ministerial conference session in Geneva from 30 November-3 December 2009. A statement by chairman Amb. Mario Matusacknowledged that the prime purpose was to remedy a breach of protocol requiring two-yearly "regular" meetings, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4112 laptop keyboard

which had lapsed with the Doha Round failure in 2005, and that the "scaled-down" meeting would not be a negotiating session, but "emphasis will be on transparency and open discussion rather than on small group processes and informal negotiating structures". The general theme for discussion was "The WTO, the Multilateral Trading System and the Current Global Economic Environment"[26] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. This was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world's poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.[27] The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.[28] SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard

The negotiations have been highly contentious. Disagreements still continue over several key areas including agriculture subsidies, which emerged as critical in July 2006.[29] According to a European Union statement, "The 2008 Ministerial meeting broke down over a disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a 'special safeguard measure' IBM Thinkpad Z60m laptop keyboard

to protect farmers from surges in imports."[30] The position of the European Commission is that "The successful conclusion of the Doha negotiations would confirm the central role of multilateral liberalisation and rule-making. It would confirm the WTO as a powerful shield against protectionist backsliding."[28] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

An impasse remains and As of June 2012, agreement has not been reached, despite intense negotiations at several ministerial conferences and at other sessions.

Additionally, it is the WTO's duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.[33][35] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.[36] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The WTO is also a center of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.[37] Finally, the WTO cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank.[34] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and current trade regime.[54] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last more if the country is less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest was that of Russia, which, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, was approved for membership in December 2011 and became a WTO member on 22 August 2012.[55] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

The second longest was that of Vanuatu, whose Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was established on 11 July 1995. After a final meeting of the Working Party in October 2001, Vanuatu requested more time to consider its accession terms. In 2008, it indicated its interest to resume and conclude its WTO accession. The Working Party on the Accession of Vanuatu was reconvened informally on 4 April 2011 to discuss Vanuatu's future WTO membership. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

The re-convened Working Party completed its mandate on 2 May 2011. The General Council formally approved the Accession Package of Vanuatu on 26 October 2011. On 24 August 2012, the WTO welcomed Vanuatu as its 157th member.[56] An offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested parties.[57] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.[58]The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members.[57] GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard

After all necessary background information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.[54] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally.[58] ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard

When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-be's commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard

The WTO has 159 members and 25 observer governments.[60] In addition to states, the European Union is a member. WTO members do not have to be full sovereign nation-members. Instead, they must be a customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. HP Mini 110-1033cl Laptop Keyboard

Thus Hong Kong has been a member since 1995 (as "Hong Kong, China" since 1997) predating the People's Republic of China, which joined in 2001 after 15 years of negotiations. The Republic of China (Taiwan) acceded to the WTO in 2002 as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu,Kinmen and Matsu" (Chinese Taipei) despite its disputed status.[61] The WTO Secretariat omits the official titles (such as Counselor, ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

First Secretary, Second Secretary and Third Secretary) of the members of Chinese Taipei's Permanent Mission to the WTO, except for the titles of the Permanent Representative and the Deputy Permanent Representative.[62] DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard

Iran is the biggest economy outside the WTO.[63] With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. A number of international intergovernmental organizations have also been granted observer status to WTO bodies.[64] FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 Laptop Keyboard

14 states and two territories so far have no official interaction with the WTO.

The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession.[65] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows.  Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domestic support, market access and export subsidies. The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading system to service sector, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

in the same way as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided such a system for merchandise trade. The agreement entered into force in January 1995. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rightssets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures—also known as the SPS Agreement—was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of GATT, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members'ASUS A3H laptop keyboard

 policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases). The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, ACER Aspire 5738PZG laptop keyboard

and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994. The object ensures that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade".[66] The Agreement on Customs Valuation, formally known as the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of GATT, prescribes methods of customs valuation that Members are to follow. Chiefly, it adopts the "transaction value" approach. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Baghdad, Berlin, Constantinople, Ancient Cusco, London, Athens, Madrid, Moscow, Ancient Rome, Beijing, Stockholm, Tokyo, andVienna. FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 laptop keyboard

The capital city naturally attracts politically motivated people and those whose skills are needed for efficient administration of national or imperial governments, such as lawyers, political scientists, bankers, journalists, and public policy makers. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e.g. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

Constantinople (more than one religion), Rome (the Roman Catholic Church), Jerusalem (Judaism), Ancient Baghdad, London (the Anglican Church), Moscow (theRussian Orthodox Church), Belgrade (the Serbian Orthodox Church), Paris, and Peking. ACER PK13ZLH0100 laptop keyboard

A capital city that is also the prime economic, cultural, or intellectual centre of a nation or an empire is sometimes referred to as a primate city. Examples are Athens, Belgrade, Bratislava, Brussels, Bucharest, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Copenhagen, Dublin, Istanbul, Lima, Lisbon, London, Madrid, Manila,Montevideo, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Mexico City, Nairobi, Paris, Prague, Riga, Rome, Santiago, Seoul, Skopje, Sofia, Stockholm, Tirana, Tokyo, Vienna, Vilnius, and Warsaw.

The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal. Traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e.g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its capital city, as occurred at Babylon and Cahokia. HP Pavilion dv5-1132la Laptop Keyboard

Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such: for example Bern, Edinburgh,Lisbon, London, Melbourne, Paris, and Wellington. They are recognised as capitals as a matter of convention, and because all or almost all the country's central political institutions, such as government departments, supreme court, legislature, embassies, etc., are located in or near them. HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Laptop Keyboard

TOSHIBA Satellite A110 Series Laptop Keyboard

Counties in England, Wales and Scotland have historic county towns, which are often not the largest settlement within the county and often are no longer administrative centres, as many historical counties are now only ceremonial, and administrative boundaries are different.

In Canada, there is a federal capital, Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

and the ten provinces and three territories all have capital cities. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil(including the famous cities of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, capitals of their respective states), and Australia all have capital cities. For example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, South Australia; Brisbane, Queensland; Hobart, COMPAQ Presario CQ60-201EP Laptop Keyboard

Tasmania; Melbourne, Victoria; Perth, Western Australia; and Sydney, New South Wales. In Australia, the term "capital cities" is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra andDarwin, the capital of the Northern Territory.  Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

In the Federal Republic of Germany, each of its constituent states (or Länder - plural of Land) has its own capital city, such as Dresden, Wiesbaden, Mainz,Düsseldorf, Stuttgart, and Munich. Likewise, each of the republics of the Russian Federation has its own capital city.  ASUS X53K Laptop Keyboard

The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the "Gulf War", despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict, when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed back. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

The Persian Gulf has many good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization, and in particular, oil and petroleum spills during wars in the region. HP G61-452EE Laptop Keyboard

Historically and internationally[2][3][4] known as the Persian Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf or The Gulf by most Arab states,[5] although neither of the latter two terms are recognized internationally. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.[6] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

This inland sea of some 251,000 km2 (96,912 sq mi) is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz; and its western end is marked by the major river delta of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphratesand the Tigris. Its length is 989 kilometres, with Iran covering most of the northern coast and Saudi Arabia most of the southern coast. The Persian Gulf is about 56 kilometres wide at its narrowest, DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

in the Strait of Hormuz. The waters are overall very shallow, with a maximum depth of 90 metres and an average depth of 50 metres.

Countries with a coastline on the Persian Gulf are (clockwise, from the north): Iran, Oman (exclave of Musandam), United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Qatar on apeninsula off the Saudi coast, Bahrain on an island, Kuwait and Iraq in the northwest. Various small islands lie within the Persian Gulf, some of which are the subject of territorial disputes between the states of the region. HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard

Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization refers to the gulf as the "Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf)", and defines its southern limit as "The Northwestern limit of Gulf of Oman". This limit is defined as "A line joining Ràs Limah (25°57'N) on the coast of Arabia and Ràs al Kuh (25°48'N) on the coast of Iran (Persia)".[6] Compaq Presario CQ57-229wm laptop keyboard

The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of crude oil, and related industries dominate the region. Safaniya Oil Field, the world's largest offshore oilfield, is located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made, with Qatar and Iran sharing a giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquified natural gas (LNG) and petrochemical industry. Compaq Presario CQ42 laptop keyboard

In 2002, the Persian Gulf nations of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, produced about 25% of the world's oil, held nearly two-thirds of the world's crude oil reserves, and about 35% of the world natural gas reserves.[7][8] HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard

The oil-rich countries (excluding Iraq) that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred to as the Persian Gulf States. Iraq's egress to the gulf is narrow and easily blockaded consisting of the marshy river delta of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers, where the east bank is held by Iran. HP Mini 110-3110sp laptop keyboard

No written record has remained from the era before the Persian Empire, but in the oral history and culture, the Iranians have called the southern waters: "Jam Sea", "Iran Sea", and "Pars Sea".

During the years 550 to 330 BC, coinciding with the sovereignty of the first Persian Empire over the Middle East area, especially the whole part of the Persian Gulf and some parts of the Arabian Peninsula, the name of "Pars Sea" is widely found in the compiled written texts.[1] HP AEAX8U00010 laptop keyboard

In the travel account of Pythagoras, several chapters are related to description of his travels accompanied byDarius the Great, to Susa and Persepolis, and the area is described. From among the writings of others in the same period, there is the inscription and engraving of Darius the great, installed at junction of waters of Red Sea (also called "Arabian Gulf" or "Ahmar Sea") and the Nile river and the Rome river (current Mediterranean) which belongs to the 5th century BC where, Darius the Great, the king of the Achaemenid Empire has named the Persian Gulf Water Channel: Pars Sea (Persian Sea).[1] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

The shallow basin that now underlies the Gulf was an extensive region of river valley and wetlands during the transition between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the start of the Holocene, which, according to University of Birmingham archaeologist Jeffrey Rose, served as an environmental refuge for early humans during periodic hyperarid climate oscillations, laying the foundations for the legend of Dilmun[15] SONY VAIO VGN-N11M laptop keyboard

For most of the early history of the settlements in the Persian Gulf, the southern shores were ruled by a series of nomadic tribes. During the end of the fourth millennium BC, the southern part of the Persian Gulf was dominated by the Dilmun civilization. For a long time the most important settlement on the southern coast of the Persian Gulf was Gerrha. HP Pavilion ze5623 laptop keyboard

In the 2nd century the Lakhum tribe, who lived in what is now Yemen, migrated north and founded the Lakhmid Kingdom along the southern coast. Occasional ancient battles took place along the Persian Gulf coastlines, between the Sassanid Persian empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom, the most prominent of which was the invasion led by Shapur II against the Lakhmids, leading to Lakhmids' defeat, and advancement into Arabia, along the southern shore lines.[16] During the 7th century the Sassanid Persian empire conquered the whole of the Persian Gulf, including southern and northern shores. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Between 625 BC and 226 AD, the northern side was dominated by a succession of Persian empires including the Median,Achaemenid, Seleucid and Parthian empires. Under the leadership of the Achaemenid king Darius the Great (Darius I), Persian ships found their way to the Persian Gulf.[17] SONY VAIO PCG-FRV37 laptop keyboard

Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence in Persian Gulf, that started with Darius I and existed until the arrival of the British East India Company, and theRoyal Navy by mid-19th century AD. Persians were not only stationed on islands of the Persian Gulf, but also had ships often of 100 to 200 capacity patrolling empire's various rivers including Shatt-al-Arab, Tigris, and the Nile in the west, as well as Sind waterway, in India.[17] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The Achaemenid high naval command had established major naval bases located along Shatt al-Arab river, Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet would soon not only be used for peacekeeping purposes along the Shatt al-Arab but would also open the door to trade with India via Persian Gulf.[17][18] IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard

Following the fall of Achaemenid Empire, and after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Sassanid empire ruled the northern half and at times the southern half of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf, along with the Silk Road, were important trade routes in the Sassanid empire. Many of the trading ports of the Persian empires were located in or around Persian Gulf.Siraf, an ancient Sassanid port that was located on the northern shore of the gulf, HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr laptop keyboard

located in what is now the Iranian province of Bushehr, is an example of such commercial port. Siraf, was also significant in that it had a flourishing commercial trade with China by the 4th century, having first established connection with the far east in 185 AD.[19] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Colonial era

See also: British Residency of the Persian Gulf

Portuguese expansion into the Indian Ocean in the early 16th century following Vasco da Gama's voyages of exploration saw them battle the Ottomans up the coast of the Persian Gulf. In 1521, a Portuguese force led by commander Antonio Correiainvaded Bahrain to take control of the wealth created by its pearl industry. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard

On April 29, 1602, Shāh Abbās, the Persianemperor of the Safavid Persian Empire expelled the Portuguese from Bahrain,[20] and that date is commemorated as National Persian Gulf day in Iran.[21] With the support of the British fleet, in 1622 'Abbās took the island of Hormuz from the Portuguese; TOSHIBA Satellite L300-14G laptop keyboard

much of the trade was diverted to the town of Bandar 'Abbās, which he had taken from the Portuguese in 1615 and had named after himself. The Persian Gulf was therefore opened by Persians to a flourishing commerce with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Spanish and the British merchants, who were granted particular privileges. ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

In World War II, the Western Allies used Iran as a conduit to transport military and industrial supply to Russia (USSR), through a pathway known historically as the "Persian Corridor". This path would utilize the Trans-Iranian Railway, but in order for the supply to be transported to Iran, Britain utitlized the Persian Gulf as the entry point for the supply chain.[22] Persian Gulf therefore became a critical maritime path through which the Allies transported equipment, to Russia against the Nazi invasion.[23] HP G72-a10SV Laptop Keyboard

From 1763 until 1971, the British Empire maintained varying degrees of political control over some of the Persian Gulf states, including the United Arab Emirates (originally called the "Trucial Coast States")[24][25] and at various times Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar through the British Residency of the Persian Gulf. United Kingdom maintains a high profile in the region to date; in 2006 alone, over 1 million British nationals visited Dubai.[26] HP G42-477TU Laptop Keyboard

The wildlife of the Persian Gulf is diverse, and entirely unique due to the gulf's geographic distribution and its isolation from the international waters only breached by the narrow Strait of Hormuz. The Persian Gulf has hosted some of the most magnificent marine fauna and flora, some of which are near extinction or at serious environmental risk. From corals, to dugongs, Persian Gulf is a diverse cradle for many species who depend on each other for survival. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

A great example of this symbiosis are the mangroves in the gulf, which require tidal flow and a combination of fresh and salt water for growth, and act as nurseries for many crabs, small fish, and insects; these fish and insects are the source of food for many of the marine birds that feed on them.[28] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Mangroves are a diverse group of shrubs and trees belonging to the genus Avicennia or Rhizophora that flourish in the salt water shallows of the gulf, and are the most important habitats for small crustaceans that dwell in them. They are as crucial an indicator of biological health on the surface of the water, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

as the corals are to biological health of the gulf in deeper waters. Mangroves' ability to survive the salt water through intricate molecular mechanisms, their unique reproductive cycle, and their ability to grow in the most oxygen-deprived waters have allowed them extensive growth in hostile areas of the gulf.[29][30]Unfortunately, however, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-14N Laptop Keyboard

with the advent of artificial island development, most of their habitat is destroyed, or occupied by man-made structures. This has had a negative impact on the crustaceans that rely on the mangrove, and in turn on the species that feed on them. HP 502958-001 Laptop Keyboard

One of the most unique marine mammals living in the Persian Gulf is Dugong dugon, commonly referred to as the dugong, or the "sea cow". Called "sea cows" for their grazing habits, their mild manner and resemblance to the livestock, dugongs have a life expectancy similar to that of humans and can reach lengths of up to 3 meters. These gentle mammals feed on the sea grass and genetically resemble the land mammals more than the dolphins and the whales.[31] Despite the simplicity of their grass diet, TOSHIBA Satellite 1870 Laptop Keyboard

new developments along the Persian Gulf coastline, particularly artificial island development in Arab states, pollution particularly by oil spills caused during the "Persian Gulf war" and also due to occasional oil spills, and uncontrolled hunting has had a negative impact on the survival of the dugongs.[31] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

After Australian waters with some 80,000 dugong inhabitants, the waters off Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, and Saudi Arabia have some 7,500 dugongs remaining, making the Persian Gulf the second most important habitat for the species. HP 488590-001 Laptop Keyboard

Dugong's current number is dwindling and it is not clear how many are currently alive or what their reproductive trend is.[31][32] Unfortunately, ambitious and uncalculated construction schemes, political unrest and an ever present international conflict, and presence of the most lucrative world supply of oil, along with lack of cooperation between Arab states and Iran, has had a negative impact on the survival of many marine species, including dugongs. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

Coral is another important inhabitant of the Persian Gulf waters. Corals are vital ecosystems that support multitude of marine species, and whose health directly reflects the health of the gulf. Recent years have seen a drastic decline in the coral population in the gulf, partially owing to global warming but majorly due to irresponsible dumping by Arab states like UAE and Bahrain.[33] Construction garbage such as tires, HP Mini 110-1125NR Laptop Keyboard

cement, and chemical by products have found their way to the Persian Gulf in recent years. Aside from direct damage to the coral, the construction waste creates "traps" for marine life in which they are trapped and die.[33] The end result has been a dwindling population of the coral, and as a result a decrease in number of species that rely on the corals for their survival. TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5165RM Laptop Keyboard

The Persian Gulf is also home to many migratory and local birds. There is great variation in color, size, and type of the bird species that call the gulf home. One bird in particular, the kalbaensis, a sub-species of the kingfishers is at the brink of extinction due to real state development by cities such as Dubai and countries such as Oman.[28] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

Estimates from 2006 showed that only three viable nesting sites were available for this ancient bird, one located 80 miles from Dubai, and two smaller sites in Oman, all of which are in the process of becoming real estate developments.[28] Such expansion would prove devastating and could cause this species to become extinct. ACER TravelMate 3212WXMi Laptop Keyboard

Unfortunately for the kingfisher, a U.N. plan to protect the mangroves as a biological reserve was blatantly ignored by the emirate of Sharjah, which allowed the dredging of a channel that bisects the wetland and construction of an adjacent concrete walkway.[28] SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

Environmental watchdogs in Arabia are few, and those that do advocate the wildlife are often silenced or ignored by developers of real estate, most of whom have royal family connections and huge energy profits to invest.[28] The end result has been sacrifice of a beautiful yet delicate ecology that has been in harmony for hundreds of years, for structures that are erected only a few years, yet will have a lasting detrimental effect. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Almost no species in the Persian Gulf is spared from the real estate development of UAE and Oman, including the hawksbill turtle, the flamingo, and the bootedwarblers, mainly due to destruction of the mangrove habitats to make way for towers, hotels, and luxury resorts.[28][34] Even dolphins that frequent the gulf in northern waters, HP 646568-001 Laptop Keyboard

around Iran are at serious risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse seine fishing nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps the most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran's Hormozgan province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs.[35][36] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Laptop Keyboard

The Persian Gulf is also home to over 700 species of fish, most of which are native to the gulf.[37] Of these 700 species, more than 80% are coral reef associated, and directly or indirectly depend on the coral reef for their survival. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Most pollution is from ships; land generated pollution counts as the second most common source of pollution,[38] ranging from mercury, to acidic or basic toxins. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Qatar

Qatar  is a sovereign Arab state, located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait in the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island state of Bahrain. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

Qatar has been ruled as an absolute and hereditary emirate by the Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Formerly one of the poorest Persian Gulf states, the mainly barren country was noted mainly for pearl hunting. It was a British protectorate until it gained independence in 1971. Since then, it has become one of the region's wealthiest states due to its enormous oil and natural gas revenues. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

In 1995, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani became Emir when he deposed his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a peaceful coup d'état.[9] The most important positions in Qatar are held by the members of the Al Thani family, or close confidants of the al-Thani family. Beginning in 1992, Qatar has built intimate military ties with the United States, and is now the location of U.S. Central Command’sForward Headquarters and the Combined Air Operations Center. HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard

Qatar has proven reserves of oil and natural gas.[10] Qatar tops the list of the world's richest countries by Forbes. In 2010, Qatar had the world's highest GDP per capita, while the economy grew by 19%, the fastest in the world. The main drivers for this rapid growth are attributed to ongoing increases in production and exports of liquefied natural gas, oil, petrochemicals, and related industries. SAMSUNG Q330-JS02 Laptop Keyboard

Qatar has the highest human development in the Arab World.[11] In 2009, Qatar was the United States’ fifth-largest export market in the Middle East (after the UAE, Israel, Saudi Arabia and Egypt). HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

With a small citizen population of fewer than 250,000 people,[12] foreign workers outnumber native Qataris. Foreign expatriates come mainly from other Arab nations (20% of population), the Indian subcontinent (India 24.5%, Nepal 13%, Pakistan 7%, Sri Lanka 5%), Southeast Asia (Philippines 10%), and other countries (5%).[13] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Recent discoveries in Wadi Debay’an, a site located a few kilometers south of Zubarah, indicate human presence from 7,500 years ago. Amongst the findings were a wall built of stone, possibly used as a fish trap.[14] Discovery of a 6th millennium BC site at Shagra, in southeastern Qatar revealed the key role the sea (the Persian Gulf) played in the lives of Shagra’s inhabitants. Excavations at Al Khor in northeastern Qatar, DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

Bir Zekrit and Ras Abaruk, and the discovery there of pottery, flint, flint-scraper tools, and painted ceramic vessels indicates Qatar’s connection with the Al-Ubaid civilisation, which flourished in the land between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq during the period of 5th–4th millennium BC. It is thought that Mesopotamian fisherman working the rich fishing banks off the Arabian coast visited local settlements, HP Pavilion dv6-3056sg Laptop Keyboard

bringing pottery with them and exchanging it for fresh meat in an improvised barter-based trade system.[15] The first potsherds of the Ubaid Mesopotamia were found by a Danish expedition in Al Da'asa in 1961, but not identified until later. A second expedition was held in 1973–74 led by Beatrice De Cardi.[16] Contact between the people of Mesopotamia and the eastern Arabian coast (including Qatar) continued over centuries. Lenovo 3000 C200 Laptop Keyboard

In the early 3rd millennium, Sumerians settled on Tarut Island, off the Saudi coast, approximately 100 kilometers north-west of Qatar. Later, from 2450 to 1700 BC, Dilmun, a peaceful trading civilization, was centered in Bahrain.[17] Evidence that Qatar was part of the complex trading network is found from the presence of Barbar pottery, a product of the Dilmun civilization, in Ras Abrouk.[18] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Qatar then emerged as one of the richest places in the Persian Gulf, with regard to the trade and commerce between the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC. This period witnessed the spread of the Bronze Age cultures and civilizations from Mesopotamia to the Indus Valley settlements of India. DELL 0PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Trade between Mesopotamia and Indus Valley was channeled through the Persian Gulf, with the western coast of Qatar playing a vital role in the transshipment of the commercial goods as the discovery of fragments of Barbar pottery in Ras Abaruk reveals it. Qatar also attracted seasonal migrants during the period of the Bronze Age.[15] SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard

Kassite of the Zagros Mountains, which is located in the province of Lorestan, assumed power in Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after circa 1531 BC to circa 1155 BC and spread their influence throughout the Persian Gulf region including a small island on the bay of Al Khor in the north of Doha. Ceramics, which were of Kassite origin that were unearthened while excavating in Al Khor for archaeological evidences, clearly indicate the close links between Qatar and Babylonia during this period.[15] HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

The Greco-Roman trade between Europe and India was carried on via the Persian Gulf during 140 BC. Archaeological evidence found in Qatar suggests the Greek and Roman influences in the peninsula, particularly at Ras Abaruk, included stone structures, such as dwellings, cairns, hearths and low mounds containing large quantities of fish bones. Excavation of the dwelling revealed two chambers; linked by a cross-wall, HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

with a third room open to the sea. Ras Abaruk was a temporary fishing station where periodic landing were made to dry fish during this period. In fact, pearls and dried fish were the major items for exportation from Qatar during the Greco-Roman period.[15] HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

The whole Persian Gulf region afterwards emerged as the most important trade centre, linking between the West and the East, during the time of the Sassanid Persian Empire in the 3rd century AD. Cargoes of copper, spices, sandalwood, teak, blackwood, etc., arriving from the East were exchanged for shipments of purple dye, clothing, pearls, dates, gold and silver. Qatar played a pre-eminent role in that commercial activity contributing at least two of these commodities to the Sassanid trade – purple dye and precious pearls.[15] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Although the peninsula land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history, the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by Nomadic tribes. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Islam was spread in the entire Arabian region by the end of the 7th century, resulting in the Islamization of the native Arabian pagans. With the spread of Islam in Qatar, the Islamic prophet Muhammad sent his first military envoy, Al Ala Al-Hadrami, to Al-Mundhir Ibn Sawa Al-Tamimi, the ruler of Bahrain (which extended from the coast of Kuwait to the south of Qatar, including Al-Hasa and Bahrain Islands), SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M Laptop Keyboard

in the year 628, inviting him to accept Islam as he had invited other kingdoms and empires of his time such as Byzantium and Persia. Mundhir, in response to Muhammad, announced his acceptance of Islam, and the inhabitants of Qatar became Muslim, heralding the beginning of the Islamic era in Qatar. However, it is likely that some settled populations in Qatar did not instantaneously convert. An important seventh-century saint and mystic, named Isaac of Nineveh, became a leader in the Syrian church.[15][19] Packard Bell Easynote TM81 laptop keyboard

During the Umayyad and the Abbasid rules in Damascus and Baghdad respectively, there was further growth of trade and commerce in Qatar. Yaqut Al Hamawi, an Arabhistorian and biographer, who died in 1229, considered Qatar as a village and famous for camel and horse breeding centre during the Umayyad period. During the ascendancy of the Abbasid in Baghdad, SONY VAIO VGN-N17G laptop keyboard

the pearling industry in the rich waters around Qatar developed considerably and the demand for Qatari pearl increased in the East, which extended as far as China. With the expansion of the mercantile activities on the coasts of Qatar, settlements began to grow on the north of Qatar, particularly at Murwab in the Yoghbi area between Zubarah and Umm el-Ma with more than 100 small stone built houses.[15] HP G72-150EF laptop keyboard

At the beginning of the 16th century, the Portuguese Empire enhanced their power and influence over the Persian Gulf after establishing hold over the Strait of Hormuz. The Portuguese Empire settled its commercial relations with many Persian Gulf harbors including Qatar, where it exported gold, silver, silk textiles,Dianthus, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

all kinds of pearls, amber and horses.[15] This lasted until the Portuguese were expelled from Qatar and Oman in 1522 by the Ottoman Navy.[20]

In the 18th century, migrants established pearling and trading settlements along the coast of present-day Qatar. The Bani Khalid, HP Pavilion dv6-2020sa laptop keyboard

which established their hold over Eastern Arabia, extended their power in the area from Qatar to Kuwait in the first half of the 18th century. Zubarah, which already emerged as one of the most salient sea ports in the Persian Gulf in view of the increased exportation of pearls to the different parts of the world, became the headquarters of the Bani Khalid administration in Qatar and the principal transit port for their Eastern and the Central Arabian territories. TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8832 laptop keyboard

The importations made from Surat of India to the port of Zubarah were Surat blue and other piece goods, cambay, chauders, shawls, bamboo, coffee, sugar, pepper, spices, iron, tin, oil, ghee, rice, etc. A part of these importations was retained at Zubarah for the consumption there and its immediate vicinities and the remainder were conveyed by means of camels to Dariyah in Nejd and to Al Hasa including the other districts under the jurisdiction of Bani Khalid.[15] HP G61-110SA laptop keyboard

In 1821, as punishment for piracy, an East India Company vessel bombarded Doha, destroying the town and forcing hundreds of residents to flee. The residents of Doha had no idea why they were being attacked. As a result, Qatari rebel groups began to emerge in order to fight the Al-Khalifas and to seek independence from Bahrain. In 1825, the House of Thani was established with Sheikh Thani bin Mohammed as the first leader.[22] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched an effort to crush the Qatari rebels, sending a massive naval force to Al Wakrah. SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

This resulted in the maritime Qatari–Bahraini War of 1867–1868, where Bahraini forces sacked and looted Doha and Al Wakrah.[23] However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation of the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. This attack, and the Qatari counterattack, prompted the British political agent, SONY VAIO PCG-FR315M laptop keyboard

Colonel Lewis Pelly, to impose a settlement in 1868. His mission to Bahrain and Qatar and the peace treaty that resulted were milestones in Qatar's history because they implicitly recognized the distinctness of Qatar from Bahrain and explicitly acknowledged the position of Sheikh Mohammed bin Thani, SONY VAIO VGN NR480E laptop keyboard

an important representative of the peninsula's tribes. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar on 18 December 1878 (for this reason, the date of 18 December is celebrated each year as Qatar National Day). In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the BritishProtectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. HP G72-150EF Laptop Keyboard

The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatar’s status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. The Al Thanis had taken relatively little part in Persian Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their hegemony as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left the nation with a new-found sense of political identity, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Under military and political pressure from the Governor of the Ottoman Vilayet of Baghdad, Midhat Pasha, the House of Thaniin Qatar submitted to Ottoman rule in 1871.[24] By the end of that year, Ottoman rule extended from Kuwait to Qatar.[24] The Ottoman government imposed reformist (Tanzimat) measures concerning taxation and land registration to fully integrate these areas into the empire.[24]  SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

In March 1893, at the Battle of Wajbah (10 miles west of Doha), Shaikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani defeated the Ottomans. Although Qatar did not gain full independence from the Ottoman Empire, the result of the battle forced a treaty that would later form the basis of Qatar emerging as an autonomous separate country within the empire.[25] HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard

The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India; although, the discovery of petroleum and other hydrocarbons in the early 20th century would reinvigorate their interest. During the 19th century, the time of Britain’s formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

The Ottoman Empire fell into disorder after losing battles in different fronts in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. Qataris took part in the Arab revolt against the Ottomans. The revolt was successful and Ottoman rule in Qatar collapsed. DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

The United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire accorded their recognition to Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani and his successors' right to rule over the whole of the Qatari Peninsula. The Ottomans renounced all their rights to Qatar and following the outbreak of the First World War, Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani, who was pro-British, forced the Ottomans to abandon Doha in 1915.[26] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

As a result of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, Qatar became a British protectorate on 3 November 1916. On that day, the United Kingdom, in order to bring Qatar under its Trucial System of Administration, signed a treaty with Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani. While Sheikh Abdullah agreed not to enter into any relations with any other power without prior consent of the British Government, HP Probook 4320s Laptop Keyboard

 Percy Zachariah Cox, the Political Resident in the Persian Gulf, who signed the treaty on behalf of his government, guaranteed the protection of Qatar "from all aggression by sea".[26]

On 5 May 1935, Sheikh Abdullah signed another treaty, which was able to obtain Britain’s agreement for the protection of Qatar from inside as well as any attacks from external forces.[26] Oil reserves were first discovered in 1939. SONY VAIO VGN-NW50JB laptop keyboard

However, exploitation was delayed by World War II.

The reach of the British Empire diminished after World War II, especially following Indian independence in 1947. In the 1950s, oil was beginning to replace pearling and fishing as Qatar's main source of revenue. Oil revenues began to fund the expansion and modernisation of Qatar's infrastructure. HP Pavilion dv6-2190us laptop keyboard

Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Persian Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British granted Kuwait's independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically (though not economically) from the Persian Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes, however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the United Arab Emirates. DELL Latitude D510 laptop keyboard

On 3 September 1971, Qatar officially gained its independence from the United Kingdom and became an independent sovereign state.[15] In 1972, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani seized power in a palace coup after infighting in the ruling family. SONY VAIO VGN-FS195VP laptop keyboard

In 1991, Qatar played a significant role in the Persian Gulf War, particularly during the Battle of Khafji in which Qatari tanks rolled through the streets of the town providing fire support for Saudi Arabian National Guard units which were fighting against units of the Iraqi Army. Qatar also allowed Coalition troops from Canada to use the country as an airbase to launch aircraft on CAP duty. SONY VGN-FE21B laptop keyboard

Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a moderate degree of liberalization, including the launch of the Al Jazeera television station (1996), Lenovo 45N2205 laptop keyboard

the endorsement of women's suffrage or right to vote in municipal elections (1999), drafting its first written constitution (2005), and inauguration of a Roman Catholic church (2008). In 2010, Qatar was selected to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and will be the first country in the Middle East to host the tournament. The emir says Qatar will hold its first national legislative elections in 2013. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Qatar is increasingly active on the regional stage. It served as the US Central Command headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003.[27] On February 13, 2004 Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev (a Chechen writer and a politician),was killed when a bomb ripped through his SUV in the Qatari capital, Doha. Yandarbiyev was seriously wounded and died in hospital. His 13-year old son Daud was seriously injured. Some, but not all, SONY VAIO VGN-N11S laptop keyboard

reports said two of his bodyguards were killed, but this has not been confirmed.</ref> Two of the GRU agents Anatoly Yablochkov (also known as Belashkov) and Vasily Pugachyov (sometimes misspelled as Bogachyov), were charged & convicted with the assassination of Yandarbiyev,

In March 2005, a suicide bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theater, shocking for a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. The bombing was carried out by Omar Ahmed Abdullah Ali, an Egyptian residing in Qatar, SONY VAIO VGN-FZ72B laptop keyboard

who had suspected ties to Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.[28][29] In 2011, Qatar joined NATO operations in Libya and reportedly armed Libyan opposition groups.[30] It is also currently giving assistance to rebel groups in Syria. Qatar is pursuing an Afghan peace deal and in January 2012 the Afghan Taliban said they were setting up a political office in Qatar to facilitate talks.  Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Qatar is a constitutional monarchy under the leadership of the Al Thani family, whose origins can be traced back to the Banu Tamim tribe. The Al Thani dynasty has been ruling Qatar since the family house was established in 1825.[31] Packard Bell Easynote TM98 laptop keyboard

The supreme chancellor has the exclusive power to appoint and remove the prime minister and cabinet ministers who, together, comprise the Council of Ministers, which is the supreme executive authority in the country.[32] The Council of Ministers also initiates legislation. Laws and decrees proposed by the Council of Ministers are referred to the Advisory Council (Majilis Al Shura) for discussion after which they are submitted to the Emir for ratification.[32] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4112 laptop keyboard

A Consultative Assembly or Majlis Al-Shura has limited legislative authority to draft and approve laws, but the Emir has final say on all matters.[31] No legislative elections have been held since 1970 when there were partial elections to the body.[31] Elections to the Majlis al-Shura have been announced, and then postponed, several times.[33] In 2011 the emir announced that elections to the council would be held in the second half of 2013.[34] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

In 2003, Qatar adopted a new constitution that provided for the direct election of 30 of the 45 members of Advisory Council.[31][33] As of 2012, the Council is composed entirely of members appointed by the Emir.[31] SAMSUNG BA59-02489J laptop keyboard

An elected 29-member Central Municipal Council (CMC) has limited consultative authority aimed at improving municipal services.[31] The CMC makes recommendations to the Ministry for Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. IBM Thinkpad Z60m laptop keyboard

Disagreement between the CMC and the Ministry can be brought to the Council of Ministers for resolution.[33] Municipal elections are scheduled for every four years.[33] The most recent elections for the council were in May 2011.[31] Before 1999, members of the CMC were appointed by the government. SONY KFRMBA152A laptop keyboard、

Shari’a (Islamic law) is the main source of Qatari legislation,[35] and is applied to aspects of family law, inheritance, and certain criminal acts.[36]

Codified family law was introduced in 2006. Sharia courts were abolished in 2003 but Sharia principles are still applied in matters related to personal status (such as marriage, divorce and child custody). In some cases a woman’s testimony is worth half a man’s and in some cases a female witness is not accepted at all.[37] HP Pavilion dv6-2150es laptop keyboard

Alcohol consumption is legal in Qatar. Luxury hotels are allowed to sell alcohol to their adult customers.[38][39] Foreign nationals may obtain a permit to purchase alcohol for personal consumption. The Qatar Distribution Company (a subsidiary of Qatar Airways) is permitted to import alcohol and pork; it operates the one and only liquor store in the country, which also sells pork to holders of liquor licences.[40] HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Until recently, restaurants on the Pearl-Qatar (a man-made island near Doha) were allowed to serve alcoholic drinks.[38][39] In December 2011, however, restaurants on the Pearl were told to stop selling alcohol.[38][41] No explanation was given for the ban.[38][39] Speculation about the reason includes the government's desire to project a more pious image in advance of the country’s first election of a royal advisory body and rumors of a financial dispute between the government and the resort’s developers.[41] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Many cases of ill-treatment of immigrant labour have been observed. Qatar does not maintain wage standards for its immigrant labor. Under the provisions of Qatar’s sponsorship law, sponsors have the unilateral power to cancel workers’ residency permits, deny workers’ ability to change employers, report a worker as “absconded” to police authorities, and deny permission to leave the country.[42] As a result, sponsors may restrict workers’ movements and workers may be afraid to report abuses or claim their rights.[42] HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

As of 2005, certain provisions of the Qatari Criminal Code allowed punishments such as flogging and stoning to be imposed as criminal sanctions. The UN Committee Against Torture found that these practices constituted a breach of the obligations imposed by the UN Convention Against Torture.[43][44] Qatar retains the death penalty, HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

mainly for threats against national security.

Qatar was also an early member of OPEC and a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It is a member of theArab League. The country has not accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.[31] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

Qatar has bilateral relationships with a variety of foreign powers. It has allowed American forces to use an air base to send supplies to Iraq and Afghanistan.[45] It has also signed a defense cooperation agreement with Saudi Arabia,[46] with whom it shares the largest single non-associated gas field in the world. It was the second nation, the first being France, to have publicly announced its recognition of the Libyan opposition's National Transitional Council as the legitimate government ofLibya amidst the 2011 Libyan civil war.[47] GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard

The history of Qatar’s alliances provides insight into the basis of their policy. Between 1760 and 1971, Qatar sought formal protection from the high transitory powers of the Ottomans, British, the Al-Khalifa’s from Bahrain, the Persians, and theWahhabis from Saudi Arabia.[48]

According to leaked documents published in The New York Times, SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

Qatar's record of counter-terrorism efforts was the "worst in the region" although Qatar had been a generous host to the American military.[49] The cable suggested that Qatar’s security service was "hesitant to act against known terrorists out of concern for appearing to be aligned with the U.S. and provoking reprisals".[49] ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard

Qatar has hosted academic, religious, political, and economic conferences. The 11th annual Doha Forum recently brought in key thinkers, professionals of various backgrounds, and political figures from all over the world to discuss democracy, media and information technology, free trade, and water security issues. This year was the first year the forum featured the Middle East Economic Future conference.[50] ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard

The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (161 km) north into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia. It lies between latitudes 24° and 27° N, and longitudes 50° and 52° E.

Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacularKhor al Adaid (“Inland Sea”), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Persian Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers. HP Mini 110-1033cl Laptop Keyboard

The highest point in Qatar is Qurayn Abu al Bawl at 103 metres (338 ft)[31] in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of lowlimestone outcroppings running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border. The Jebel Dukhan area also contains Qatar’s main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula. ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

Qatar signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 21 August 1996.[55] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 18 May 2005.[56] DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard

The country's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan states that 508 animal species have been recorded from terrestrial sites in Quatar. These comprise amphibians (1 species), birds (242 species), invertebrates (228 species), mammals (8 species) and reptiles (29 species). This count is unlikely to be exhaustive, particularly for invertebrates. FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 Laptop Keyboard

 Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

One mammal (the Arabian oryx), and ten birds (cinereous bunting, corncrake, ferruginous duck, great snipe, greater spotted eagle, houbara bustard,lesser kestrel, pale harrier, sociable lapwing and Socotra cormorant) are treated by the plan as endangered. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

A further 553 animal species have been recorded from marine habitats. These comprise birds (20 species), fish (136 species), invertebrates (379 species), mammals (3 species), and reptiles (15 species). Of these, 10 are treated by the plan as endangered (black finless porpoise, blacktip shark, brown shark, dugong, green turtle, hawksbill turtle, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, leatherback turtle, loggerhead turtle, and olive ridley turtle). SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

A total of 142 fungal species have been recorded from Qatar.[57] Almost all of these are microscopic species isolated from soil samples, the predominating genera being Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botryotrichum, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Microascus,Penicillium, and Stachybotrys. As with animals, the list is unlikely to be exhaustive. ASUS A3H laptop keyboard

With the exception of brief comment about the importance in Qatari culture of desert truffles (species of Terfezia which live in association with Helianthemumspecies), the country's biodiversity strategy and action plan contained no mention of fungi living on animals (as symbionts or on dung), on plant material (as symbionts or saprobes), or in marine habitats. No lichen-forming fungi were mentioned. The total number of fungi actually occurring in Qatar is thus likely to be greater than the 142 species listed in the plan. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

In terrestrial habitats, Qatar has 371 species of flowering plants, belonging in 236 genera. A further 402 plant species were listed from marine habitats.

For two decades, Qatar has had the highest per-capita carbon dioxide emissions in the world, at 49.1 metric tons per person in 2008.[58] FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 laptop keyboard

This is about 60 percent more than one of the next highest per-capita emitting country, which is Kuwait at 30.7 metric tons, more than the double of the emissions of people in the United States. Other sources state that by 2007, Qatar’s emission rate increased to 69 tons per person per year. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

These emissions are largely due to high rates of energy use in Qatar. Major uses of energy in Qatar include air conditioning, natural gas processing, water desalination, and electricity production. Between 1995 and 2011, the electricity generating capacity of Qatar will have increased to six times the previous level. The fact that Qataris do not have to pay for either their water or electricity supplies is thought to contribute to their high rate of energy use. They are also one of the highest consumers of water per capita per day, using around 400 litres.[60] ACER PK13ZLH0100 laptop keyboard

Before the discovery of oil, the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearl hunting. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry crashed. The discovery ofoil in the 1940s transformed the state's economy. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Now, the country has a high standard of living. With no income tax,[citation needed] Qatar (along with Bahrain) is one of the countries with the lowest tax rates in the world.

Qatar has the highest GDP per capita in the world as of 2012, according to the CIA World Factbook.[62] It relies heavily on foreign labor to grow its economy, to the extent that migrant workers comprise 94% of the workforce.[63] HP Pavilion dv5-1132la Laptop Keyboard

In May 2012, Qatari officials declared their intention to allow the establishment of an independent trade union.[64] Qatar also announced it will scrap its sponsor system for foreign labour, which requires that all foreign workers be sponsored by local employers, who in some cases hold workers’ passports and can deny them permission to change jobs.[64] According to theITUC, HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Laptop Keyboard

the visa sponsorship system allows the exaction of forced labour by making it difficult for a migrant worker to leave an abusive employer or travel overseas without permission.[65] Qatar does not have national occupational health standards or guidelines, and workplace injuries are the third highest cause of accidental deaths.[66] TOSHIBA Satellite A110 Series Laptop Keyboard

The economic growth of Qatar has been almost exclusively based on its petroleum and natural gas industries, which began in 1940.[67] The country has experienced rapid growth over the last several years due to high oil prices, and in 2008 posted its eighth consecutive budget surplus. Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

Economic policy is focused on developing Qatar's non-associated natural gas reserves and increasing private and foreign investment in non-energy sectors, but oil and gas still account for more than 50% of GDP; roughly 85% of export earnings, and 70% of government revenues. Proven oil reserves of 15 billion barrels should enable continued output at current levels for 37 years. Qatar's proved reserves of natural gas are nearly 26 trillion cubic metres, about 14% of the world total and the third largest in the world. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-201EP Laptop Keyboard

 Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar’s economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a “knowledge economy”. In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar.  ASUS X53K Laptop Keyboard

Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it establishedDoha Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Doha launched an official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October 2007.[68] Its bid was finally eliminated from consideration in June 2008. Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.[citation needed] HP G61-452EE Laptop Keyboard

Commercial ties between the United States and Qatar have been expanding at a rapid pace over the last five years, with trade volumes growing by more than 340%, from $738 million in 2003 to $3.2 billion in 2009. Over the same period, U.S. exports increased by 580% to $2.7 billion, making the United States the largest import partner for Qatar. U.S. companies look to play key role in the $60 billion dollars that Qatar will invest in roads, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

infrastructure development, housing and real estate, health/medical and sanitation projects in the next decade. Qatar has attracted an estimated $100 billion in investment, with approximately $60 to $70 billion coming from the United States in the energy sector. It is estimated that Qatar will invest over $120 billion in the energy sector in the next ten years.[69] DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

The primary means of transportation in Qatar is by road, due to the very cheap price of petroleum. The country as a result has an advanced road system undergoing vast upgrades in response to the country's rapidly rising population, with several highways undergoing upgrades and new expressways within Doha under construction. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

A large bus network connects Doha with other towns in the country, and is the primary means of public transportation in the city.

The Salwa International Highway currently connects Doha to the border with Saudi Arabia, and a causeway with both road and rail links to Bahrain at Zubarah is due to begin construction shortly. The causeway will become the largest in the world, and will be the second to connect Bahrain to the Arabian Peninsula. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Currently, no rail networks exist in the country. In November 2009, however, the government signed a $26 billion contract with the German company Deutsche Bahn to construct a railway system over the next 20 years. The network will connect the country itself, and will include an international link with neighbouring states as part of a larger rail network being constructed across the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council. A railway link is also under construction between Qatar andBahrain as part of the Qatar Bahrain Causeway. HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard

Qatar's main airport is the Doha International Airport, which served almost 15 million passengers in 2007. In comparison, the airport served only 2 million passengers in 1998. As a result of the much larger volumes of passengers flying into and through the country today, the New Doha International Airport is currently under construction, and will replace the existing airport in 2013. HP Mini 110-3110sp laptop keyboard

The 2010 census recorded the total population at 1,699,435.[2] In January 2013, the Qatar Statistics Authority estimated the country's population at 1,903,447, of which 1,405,164 are males and 498,283 females.[1] HP AEAX8U00010 laptop keyboard

The population has tripled in the decade to 2011, up from just over 600,000 people in 2001, leaving Qatari nationals as less than 15% of the total population.[74] The influx of male labourers has skewed the gender balance, and women are now just one-quarter of the population.[74]

The make up of ethnic groups is as follows: Qatari (Arab) 20%; other Arab 20%; Indian 20%; Filipino 10%; Nepali 13%; Pakistani 7%; Sri Lankan 5%; other 5%.[13][not in citation given] In 2010, there were 250,000 Filipinos in Qatar, making them the third largest among expatriates.[75] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

Projections released by Qatar Statistical Authourity indicates that the total population of Qatar could reach 2.8 million by 2020. Qatar’s National Development Strategy (2011-16) had estimated that the country’s population would reach 1.78m in 2013, 1.81m in 2014, 1.84m in 2015 and 1.86m in 2016 — the yearly growth rate being merely 2.1 percent. But the country’s population have soared to 1.83 million by the end of 2012, showing 7.5 percent growth over the previous year.[76] SONY VAIO VGN-N11M laptop keyboard

Islam is the predominant religion. According to the 2004 census, 77.5% of the population are Sunni Muslim and about 4% Shi'a Muslim, 8.5% are Christian and 10% are "Other".[31][77][78]

The majority of non-citizens are from South and Southeast Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts, accompanied by family members in some cases.[citation needed] Non-citizens can be Muslim, Protestant or Catholic Christians, Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs, or Bahá'ís. HP Pavilion ze5623 laptop keyboard

The government uses Sunni law as the basis of its criminal and civil regulations. Some religious tolerance is granted. Foreign nationals are free to affiliate with their faiths other than Islam, e.g. Christianity, Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bahai, as long as they are religious in private and do not offend 'public order' or 'morality'. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

In March 2008, a Roman Catholic church, Our Lady of the Rosary, was consecrated in Doha. No missionaries are allowed in the community. The church has no bells,crosses or other Christian symbols on it and its premises. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV37 laptop keyboard

The Christian population is composed almost entirely of foreigners. Active churches are Mar Thoma Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church from Southern India, Arab Evangelicals from Syria and Palestine, and Anglicans,[79] about 50,000 Catholics and Copts from Egypt.[80] No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country,[81] but the government allows churches to conduct Mass. Since 2008 Christians have been allowed to build churches on ground donated by the government.[82] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Qatar's native culture is similar to that of other Arab countries of the Persian Gulf (see Culture of the Arab States of the Persian Gulf). Arab tribes from Saudi Arabia migrated to Qatar and other places in the Persian Gulf; therefore, cultures in the Persian Gulf region vary little from country to country.

Qatar explicitly uses Sharia law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard

The Qatar National Day hosted every 18 December is the day Qataris celebrate their national identity and history. On that day, expressions of affection and gratitude are conveyed to the people of Qatar who cooperated in solidarity and vowed allegiance and obedience to Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani as a leader in 1878.[85][86] HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr laptop keyboard

Main articles: Qatar Museums Authority and Collecting practices of the Al-Thani Family

Qatar's cultural policies are very dynamic. Several senior members of the ruling Al Thani family are enthusiastic collectors of Islamic and contemporary art (see Collecting practices of the Al-Thani Family), and their collections form the backbone of Qatar's museums, such as the Museum of Islamic Art, Doha, theMathaf: SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Arab Museum of Modern Art and the Orientalist Museum. More museums are planned, such as the Qatar National Museum. These all fall under the Qatar Museums Authority (QMA) which is led by Sheikha Al-Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, the daughter of the ruling Emir of the State of Qatar, and the prominent collector and art patron Sheikh Hassan bin Mohammed Al-Thani.[87] The QMA also sponsors artistic events abroad, such as major exhibitions by Takahashi Murakami in Versailles (2010) and Damien Hirst in London (2012). TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard

The Qatari cultural sector is being developed to enable the country to reach world recognition in order to contribute to the development of a country that comes mainly from its resources from the gas industry.[88] TOSHIBA Satellite L300-14G laptop keyboard

Al Jazeera is a main television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched in 1996 as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels. ACER Aspire 5738PZG laptop keyboard

Print media is going through expansion, with over three English dailies and Arabic titles. Qatar Today is the only monthly business magazine in the country. It is published by Oryx Advertising, which is the largest magazine publisher in Qatar. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

The group also publishes several titles such as Qatar Al Youm, the only monthly business magazine in Qatar in Arabic language, Woman Today, the only magazine for working women, and GLAM,[89] the only fashion magazine. In December 2009, Oryx launched T Qatar: The New York Times Style Magazine,[90] which marks the entry of an international magazine into Qatar. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

Football (soccer) is popular in the country. The Qatar under-20 national football team finished second in the 1981 FIFA World Youth Championship after a 4–0 defeat to Germany in the final.

The Asian Football Confederation's 2011 AFC Asian Cup finals was held in Qatar in January 2011. It was the fifteenth time the tournament has been held, and the second time it has been hosted by Qatar, the other being the 1988 AFC Asian Cup. TOSHIBA Satellite L40-14N Laptop Keyboard

Doha, Qatar, is also home to Qatar Racing Club, a drag racing facility. Sheik Khalid bin Hamad Al Thani is very involved in the sport and owner of Al-Anabi Racing. He recently brought his racing company to the United States as a member of the NHRA with the help of 9 time NHRA champion crew chief Alan Johnson, renaming the American team Awsome Al-Anabi Racing, he also brought Johnson on as CEO of the American team, luring him from rival Don Schumacher Racing. They currently have two teams in Top Fuel: Khalid Al-Balooshi and Shawn Langdon. HP 502958-001 Laptop Keyboard

Khalifa International Tennis and Squash Complex in Doha, Qatar, hosted the WTA Tour Championships in women's tennis between 2008 and 2010. Doha holds the WTA Premier tournament Qatar Ladies Open annually.

On 2 December 2010, Qatar won their bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, despite never having qualified for the FIFA World Cup Finals before.[91] TOSHIBA Satellite 1870 Laptop Keyboard

Nasser Al-Attiyah of Qatar won the 2011 Dakar Rally and the Production World Rally Championship in 2006. In addition, he has also won gold medals at the 2002 Asian Games and 2010 Asian Games as part of the Qatari skeet shooting team, as well as a bronze medal in the individual skeet event at the 2010 Games in Guangzhou. In the 2012 Summer Games, he won the bronze medal in clay pigeon shooting.[92] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Since 2002, Qatar has hosted the annual Tour of Qatar, a cycling race in six stages. Every February, riders are racing on the roads across Qatar's flat land for six days. Each stage covers a distance of more than 100 km, though the time trial usually is a shorter distance. Tour of Qatar is organised by the Qatar Cycling Federation for professional riders in the category of Elite Men.[93] HP 488590-001 Laptop Keyboard

In March 2013, Qatar hosted the first round of the FIM World Motocross Championship, becoming the first Motocross Grand Prix to be held in the Middle East.

In 2022, Qatar will host the World Cup. Qatar are planning on building nine new stadiums and expanding three of them for this event. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

The illiteracy rate in Qatar was 3.1% for males and 4.2% for females in 2012, the lowest in the Arab world.[94] Citizens are required to attend government-provided education from kindergarten through high school.[95] Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, a number of leading universities from other countries have opened branch campuses in the Education City. HP Mini 110-1125NR Laptop Keyboard

In 2008, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, the College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary, also operate campuses in Doha. Other for-profit universities have also established campuses in the city.[96] TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5165RM Laptop Keyboard

In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani created the Supreme Education Council.[97] The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the “Education for a New Era”[98] reform initiative.

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are Qatar University (1881st worldwide), Texas A&M University at Qatar (3905th) and Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar (6855th).[99] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 1.40% of the country's GDP. In 2006, there were 23.12 physicians and 61.81 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[100] The life expectancy at birth was 78.25 years in 2010, or 78.54 years for males and 77.95 years for females.[101]

ACER TravelMate 3212WXMi Laptop Keyboard

Established by the Emiri decree in 1979, HMC manages five highly specialised hospitals and a health care centre: Hamad General Hospital, Rumailah Hospital, Women’s Hospital, Psychiatric Hospital and the Primary Health Care Centres and Al Khor Hospital. These hospitals are quite sophisticated by the standards of the region, with most hosting advanced fMRI and other scanning machines. SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

Other private hospitals and polyclinics consist of Sidra Hospital, Al-Ahli Hospital, Doha Clinic, Al-Emadi Hospital, The American Hospital, Apollo Clinic, Future Medical Center, Future Dental Center, and Tadawi Medical. Qatar has among the highest rates in the world for obesity, diabetes and genetic disorders.[102ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

An Air and Space Operations Center (AOC) is a type of command center used by the United States Air Force. It is the senior agency of the Air Force component commander to provide command and control of air and space operations.[1] HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard

The US Air Force employs two kinds of AOCs: regional AOCs (the AN/USQ-163 Falconer) that support geographic combatant commanders, and functional AOCs that support functional combatant commanders.[2] When there is more than one military service working in an AOC, it is called a Joint Air and Space Operations Center (JAOC). In cases of allied or coalition (multinational) operations, the AOC is called a Combined Air and Space Operations Center (CAOC).[1] Compaq Presario CQ57-229wm laptop keyboard

An AOC is the senior element of the Theater Air Control System (TACS). The Joint Force Commander (JFC) assigns a Joint Forces Air Component Commander (JFACC) to lead the AOC weapon system. Quite often the Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is assigned the JFACC position for planning and executing theater-wide air and space forces. Compaq Presario CQ42 laptop keyboard

The 601 Air and Space Operations Center (AOC) plans, directs, and assesses air and space operations for the North American Aerospace Defense (NORAD) Command, and the United States Northern Command (NORTHCOM). The AOC provides aerospace warning and control for NORAD Defensive Counter Air (DCA) activities. As well as it directs Air Force air and space capabilities in support of NORTHCOM homeland security and civil support missions. TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Laptop Keyboard

The 601 AOC fills the critical need to meet the challenge of directing all air sovereignty activities for the continental United States and is the new-age combat weapon system needed to fulfill that crucial defense role by remaining vigilant 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.[1] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop KeyboardThe Secretary of the Air Force has announced that the missions of the 601st and 612th Air and Space Operations Centers into one unit. It has not been announced which unit will be taking on the additional responsibilities and which will be shuttered. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

nonprofit organization with 55,600 members nationwide. AF Auxiliary flew over 18,000 hours supporting AFNORTH missions. AF Aux performs 90 percent of continental U.S. inland search and rescue missions as tasked by the Air Force Rescue Coordination Center and was credited by the AFRCC with saving 91 lives in fiscal year 2008. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

volunteers are a force multiplier for AFNORTHs critical homeland security, disaster relief and counter-drug missions. We provided damage assessment and transport support to federal, state and local agencies during hurricane Katrina, Ike and Gustav and are standing by to support this year's hurricane season. The members play a leading role in aerospace education and serve as mentors to the nearly 22,000 young people currently participating in CAP cadet programs. CAP has been performing missions for America for more than 67 years. DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

101st Information Operations Flight The 101st Information Operations Flight (IOF) provides non-kinetic operational options to the Combined Forces Air Component Commander (CFACC). The unit is engaged in the Global War on Terrorism as demonstrated by its active participation and continued vigilance in Operation Noble Eagle. The 101st has re-shaped the battle-space by showing that Information Operations (IO) is a critical weapon system in the Air and Space Operations Center (AOC) as well as other venues. HP G42-265LA Laptop Keyboard

Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

The AOC is the eyes, ears, and voice of the CFACC to his fighting forces. The 101st capabilities are employed via a sophisticated split-based, reach-back, full-spectrum concept of operations using forward deployed IO warriors at Tyndall AFB, Florida, while simultaneously executing the mission from the Utah Air National Guard base in Salt Lake City. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard

The 101st provides important inputs to the Air Tasking Orders (ATO) executed by the Continental U.S. North American Aerospace Defense Command Region. The 101st supports Integrated Air Defense Systems in the National Capital Region, National Security Special Events, Security Events for Homeland Security, SONY VAIO VGN-NW130D Laptop Keyboard

and associated Combined and Joint Interagency Task Forces. Past activities include participation in Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma relief Operations, major NORAD/USNORTHCOM and Canadian exercises, and operations to support the Super Bowl, Space Shuttle launch and recovery, G8 summit, UN General Assembly, and the Republican/Democratic National Conventions. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S5984 Laptop Keyboard

Joint Based Expeditionary Connectivity Center The Joint Based Expeditionary Connectivity Center (JBECC) was developed in early 2001 as part of the Deputy Undersecretary of Defense for Advanced Systems and Concepts Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration program. Since September 11, 2001, the JBECC has participated in over a dozen operational missions, to protect the President of the United States, TOSHIBA AEBD3U00050 Laptop Keyboard

the National Capital Region, the 2004 Group of Eight (G8) Summit, United Nations General Assembly, Space Shuttle Launches, and Super Bowl XLI. The JBECC is a highly mobile, small footprint, vehicle-mounted communications asset that can rapidly deploy to build an integrated air picture, from multiple Federal Aviation Administration and tactical rdars, within a defined geographical area. ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

This capability enables NORAD to better detect, track, identify, and engage any airborne aircraft, cruise missile, unmanned aerial vehicle, or remotely piloted vehicle. It is the cornerstone in NORAD's Deployable-Homeland Air and Cruise Missile Defense Mission and a critical asset at America's Air and Space Operations Center. HP G72-a10SV Laptop Keyboard

Air Force Rescue Coordination Center (AFRCC) As the United States inland search and rescue (SAR) mission coordinator, the AFRCC serves as the single agency responsible for coordinating life saving federal SAR services, ensuring timely and effective lifesaving operations within the 48 contiguous United States and supporting Mexican and Canadian requests for their SAR operations. The unit’s responsibilities include: HP G42-477TU Laptop Keyboard

initiating searches for missing/overdue aircraft (e.g., all DoD, commercial, and interstate aircraft or intrastate aircraft if requested by the state), managing all inland emergency beacon searches, and supporting state and local SAR operations (e.g., missing person searches, MEDEVAC, organ transport, etc.) The AFRCC operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week and is staffed by one watch supervisor and up to four SAR controllers SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

263rd Army Air and Missile Defense Command The 263rd Army Air and Missile Defense Command serves as a supporting command to U.S. Army North (ARNORTH) for all Army Air Defense Artillery (ADA) missions as required to detect, deter, divert, and if necessary defeat air and cruise missile threats to the Continental United States to include National Capital Region Integrated Air Defense System. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-15C Laptop Keyboard

They serve as Theater Army Air and Missile Defense Coordinator to ARNORTH Joint Forces Land Component Commander for planning, coordination, integration, and execution to defeat or destroy Short and Medium Range Ballistic Missile threats to the US Northern Command Combatant Commander's designated priorities. Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

When required, they assumes lead operational headquarters In Support Of Commander, US Element North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), for support and oversight of Homeland Defense ADA missions to detect, deter, divert, and if necessary defeat airborne attacks within the NORAD area of operation and provide direct support, Deputy Area Air Defense Commander, SONY VAIO VGN NR430E laptop keyboard

to Continental NORAD Region (CONR) Area Air Defense Commander within the CONR area of operation. Additionally, they serve as a supporting command to First Army and Forces Command for active duty Training Readiness Authority for Homeland Defense Army ADA missions. Execute functional coordination with the US Army Space and Missile Defense Command to include new technology insertion and testing for Homeland Defense Army ADA missions. Lenovo Thinkpad T410 laptop keyboard

The United States Central Command (USCENTCOM) is a theater-level Unified Combatant Command of the U.S. Department of Defense, established in 1983. It was originally conceived of as the Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force (RDJTF). HP Pavilion DV6-1128tx laptop keyboard

DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard

Its area of responsibility includes countries in the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, most notably Afghanistan and Iraq. CENTCOM has been the main American presence in many military operations, including thePersian Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan (2001–present), and the Iraq War. Forces from USCENTCOM (also called CENTCOM) currently are deployed primarily in Iraq and Afghanistan in combat roles and have bases in Kuwait, TOSHIBA P205-S6337 laptop keyboard

Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Pakistan, and central Asia in support roles. CENTCOM forces have also been deployed in Jordan, and Saudi Arabia in the past, and although there is a small presence remaining in each of those countreis, no substantial U.S. forces are based there as of 2009. SONY VAIO VGN-SZ360 laptop keyboard

The current commander of USCENTCOM is General Lloyd J. Austin, USA, who took command from General James Mattis,USMC on 22 March 2013. Mattis took command from [2][3][4] Lieutenant General John Allen, USMC, the deputy commander since July 2008, who took temporary command when the previous commander, General David Petraeus, USA, left to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan on 23 June.[5] ASUS A6000R laptop keyboard

Of the six American regional unified commands, CENTCOM is one of three regional unified commands whose headquarters are not within its area of operations. CENTCOM's main headquarters is located at MacDill Air Force Base, in Tampa, Florida, although a forward headquarters was established in 2002 at Camp As Sayliyah in Doha, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Qatar, which transitioned to a new forward headquarters at Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar in 2009 to serve American strategic interests if the USCENTCOM Area of Responsibility (AOR) and Area of Interest (AOI). The other regional unified commands with headquarters located outside their areas of operations are United States Southern Command(USSOUTHCOM), currently based in Miami, Florida, and United States Africa Command (USAFRICOM), currently based inStuttgart, Germany. Compaq Presario CQ71-320SG laptop keyboard

Exercise Internal Look is one of the Command's primary planning events. Up until around 1990, it was annual, but it is now held every two years. Up until 1990 it was frequently used to train CENTCOM to be ready to defend theZagros Mountains from a Soviet attack.[6] It has been employed for explicit war planning on at least two occasions: SONY VAIO VGN-NW120J laptop keyboard

Internal Look '90, which was held after General Norman Schwarzkopf reoriented CENTCOM's planning to fending off a threat from Iraq, and Internal Look '03, which was used to plan what became Operation Iraqi Freedom. Compaq Presario CQ42-219AX laptop keyboard

On 1 October 2008 Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa at Camp Lemonnier in Djibouti was transferred to AFRICOM. During the Israeli incursion into Lebanon of 2006 a temporary task force, Joint Task Force Lebanon was also operational. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

SONY 148084122 laptop keyboard

CENTCOM staff sections include personnel, operations, logistics, and intelligence, as well as other functions. The intelligence section is known as JICCENT, or Joint Intelligence Center, Central Command, which serves as a Joint Intelligence Center for the co-ordination of intelligence. Under the intelligence directorate, there are several divisions including the Afghanistan-Pakistan Center of Excellence. HP Mini 110-1125NR laptop keyboard

There are also elements of other Unified Combatant Commands, especially United States Special Operations Command, operating in the CENTCOM area. It appears that SOCCENT does not direct the secretive Task Force 77, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

the ad-hoc grouping of Joint Special Operations Command 'black' units such as Delta Force and Army Rangers, which is tasked to pursue the most sensitive high value targets such as Al Qaeda and the Taliban leadership since 11 September 2001. Rather TF 77, which started out as Task Force 11 and has gone through a number of name/number changes, reports directly to Joint Special Operations Command, part of USSOCOM. HP 646568-001 Laptop Keyboard

The formal Area of Responsibility (AOR) extends to 20 countries: Afghanistan, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Uzbekistan, and Yemen. International waters included are the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and western portions of the Indian Ocean.[8] Syria and Lebanon are the most recent addition, having been transferred from the United States European Command on 10 March 2004. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Israel, which is now surrounded by CENTCOM countries remains in EUCOM, "because it is more politically, militarily and culturally aligned with Europe," according to American military officials.[9][citation needed] General Norman Schwarzkopfexpressed the position over Israel more frankly in his 1992 autobiography: SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

'European Command also kept Israel, which from my viewpoint was a help: I'd have had difficulty impressing the Arabs with Central Command's grasp of geopolitical nuance if one of the stops on my itinerary had been Tel Aviv.'[10] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

On 7 February 2007, plans were announced for the creation of a United States Africa Command which would transfer responsibility for all of Africa except the country of Egypt to the new USAFRICOM. On 1 October 2008, the Africa Command became operational and Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa, the primary CENTCOM force on the continent, started reporting to AFRICOM at Stuttgart instead of CENTCOM in Tampa. Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

Major US troop presence in the region dates to the 1990 Invasion of Kuwait and the subsequent Operation Desert Shield, which transferred hundreds of thousands of troops to Saudi Arabia. Islamists objected to the presence of non-Muslim troops in Saudi Arabia, and their use in Operation Desert Storm and other attacks on Iraq became a key rallying cry for opposition movements in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere. By the late 1990s, a gradual move to other countries was underway, particularly Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, and the UAE. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

The military uses a variable number of base locations depending on its level of operations. With warfare ongoing in Iraq and Afghanistan in 2003, the United States Air Force used 35 bases, while in 2006 it used 14, including four in Iraq. The United States Navy maintains one major base and one smaller installation, with extensive deployments afloat and ashore by U.S. Navy, U.S Marine Corps and U.S. Coast Guard ships, aviation units and ground units. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard

SAMSUNG R470 Laptop Keyboard

Gulf War

One of the West's main concerns was the significant threat Iraq posed to Saudi Arabia. Following Kuwait's conquest, the Iraqi Army was within easy striking distance of Saudi oil fields. Control of these fields, along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves, would have given Saddam control over the majority of the world's oil reserves. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq also had a number of grievances with Saudi Arabia. The Saudis had lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars during its war with Iran. The Saudis had backed Iraq in that war, as they feared the influence of Shia Iran's Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority. After the war, Saddam felt he shouldn't have to repay the loans due to the help he had given the Saudis by fighting Iran.

Soon after his conquest of Kuwait, Saddam began verbally attacking the Saudis. He argued that the U.S.- DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

supported Saudi state was an illegitimate and unworthy guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He combined the language of the Islamistgroups that had recently fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack the Saudis.[65] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Acting on the Carter Doctrine's policy, and out of fear the Iraqi Army could launch an invasion of Saudi Arabia, U.S. President George H. W. Bush quickly announced that the U.S. would launch a "wholly defensive" mission to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under the codename Operation Desert Shield. HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990 when U.S. troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to the request of its monarch, King Fahd, who had earlier called for U.S. military assistance.[66] This "wholly defensive" doctrine was quickly abandoned when, on 8 August, Iraq declared Kuwait to be Iraq's 19th province and Saddam named his cousin, Ali Hassan Al-Majid, as its military-governor.[67] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The U.S. Navy dispatched two naval battle groups built around the aircraft carriers USS Dwight D. Eisenhower and USSIndependence to the Gulf, where they were ready by 8 August. The U.S. also sent the battleships USS Missouri and USSWisconsin to the region. A total of 48 U.S. Air Force F-15s from the 1st Fighter Wing at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, landed in Saudi Arabia, and immediately commenced round the clock air patrols of the Saudi–Kuwait–Iraq border to discourage further Iraqi military advances. HP G42-415DX Laptop Keyboard

They were joined by 36 F-15 A-Ds from the 36th Tactical Fighter Wing at Bitburg, Germany. The Bitburg contingent was based at Al Kharj Air Base, approximately 1-hour southeast of Riyadh. The 36th TFW would be responsible for 11 confirmed Iraqi Air Force aircraft shot down during the war. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

There were also two Air National Guard units stationed at Al Kharj Air Base, the South Carolina Air National Guard's 169th Fighter Wing flew bombing missions with 24 F-16s flying 2,000 combat missions and dropping 4 million pounds of munitions, and the New York Air National Guard's 174th Fighter Wing from Syracuse flew 24 F-16s on bombing missions. Military buildup continued from there, eventually reaching 543,000 troops, GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard

twice the number used in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Much of the material was airlifted or carried to the staging areas via fast sealift ships, allowing a quick buildup. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

A series of U.N. Security Council resolutions and Arab League resolutions were passed regarding Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. One of the most important wasResolution 678, passed on 29 November 1990, which gave Iraq a withdrawal deadline until 15 January 1991, and authorized "all necessary means to uphold and implement Resolution 660", SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

and a diplomatic formulation authorizing the use of force if Iraq failed to comply.[68]onThanksgiving Day, 1990.

The U.S. assembled a coalition of forces to join it in opposing Iraq's aggression, consisting of forces from 34 countries: Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Kuwait, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Portugal, Qatar, South Korea, ACER Aspire 5738PZG Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Spain, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom and the U.S. itself.[69] U.S. Army General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. was designated to be the commander of the Coalition forces in the Persian Gulf area. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard

HP Mini 110-1033cl Laptop Keyboard

Although they didn't contribute any forces, Japan and Germany made financial contributions totaling $10 billion and $6.6 billion respectively. U.S. troops represented 73% of the Coalition’s 956,600 troops in Iraq. ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

Many of the Coalition forces were reluctant to join. Some felt that the war was an internal Arab affair, or didn't want to increase U.S. influence in the Middle East. In the end, however, many nations were persuaded by Iraq’s belligerence towards other Arab states, offers of economic aid or debt forgiveness, and threats to withhold aid.[70] DELL Studio 1458 Laptop Keyboard

FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 Laptop Keyboard

Justification for interv

The U.S. and the U.N. gave several public justifications for involvement in the conflict, the most prominent being the Iraqi violation of Kuwaiti territorial integrity. In addition, the U.S. moved to support its ally Saudi Arabia, whose importance in the region, and as a key supplier of oil, made it of considerable geopoliticalimportance.  Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, U.S. Defense Secretary Dick Cheney made the first of several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested U.S. military assistance. During a speech in a special joint session of the U.S. Congress given on 11 September 1990, U.S. President George H. W. Bush summed up the reasons with the following remarks: Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

"Within three days, 120,000 Iraqi troops with 850 tanks had poured into Kuwait and moved south to threaten Saudi Arabia. It was then that I decided to act to check that aggression."[71]

The Pentagon claimed that satellite photos showing a buildup of Iraqi forces along the border were this information's source, but this was later shown to be false. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

A reporter for the Saint Petersburg Times acquired two commercial Soviet satellite images made at the time in question, which showed nothing but empty desert.[72] However, serious questions were raised later when it was revealed that the satellite images were actually Soviet military images, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

not private commercial images, and it would've been impossible for the Soviets to share original source imagery without compromising security of classified images.[citation needed] The images were, in fact, not different magnifications of one original source image of the area in question, but separate images taken at different times and locations. TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S5077 laptop keyboard

The Soviets were heavily invested in Iraq and made numerous attempts to stop the Coalition from invading Iraq, through diplomacy and also through deceptive propaganda.[citation needed]

Other justifications for foreign involvement included Iraq’s history of human rights abuses under Saddam. Iraq was also known to possess biological weapons and chemical weapons, TOSHIBA Satellite L300-14G laptop keyboard

which Saddam had used against Iranian troops during the Iran–Iraq War and against his own country's Kurdish population in the Al-Anfal Campaign. Iraq was also known to have a nuclear weaponsprogram, but the report about it from January 1991 was partially declassified by the CIA on 26 May 2001.[73] ACER Aspire 5738PZG laptop keyboard

Although there were human rights abuses committed in Kuwait by the invading Iraqi military, the ones best known in the U.S. were inventions of the public relations firm hired by the government of Kuwait to influence U.S. opinion in favor of military intervention. Shortly after Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

the organization Citizens for a Free Kuwait was formed in the U.S. It hired the public relations firm Hill & Knowlton for about $11 million, paid by Kuwait's government.[74]

Among many other means of influencing U.S. opinion (distributing books on Iraqi atrocities to U.S. soldiers deployed in the region, 'Free Kuwait' T-shirts and speakers to college campuses, and dozens of video news releases to television stations), FUJITSU Lifebook P1620 laptop keyboard

the firm arranged for an appearance before a group of members of the U.S. Congress in which a woman identifying herself as anurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers pulling babies out of incubators and letting them die on the floor.[75] Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

The story was an influence in tipping both the public and Congress towards a war with Iraq: six Congressmen said the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq and seven Senators referenced the testimony in debate. The Senate supported the military actions in a 52–47 vote. A year after the war, however, this allegation was revealed to be a fabrication. The woman who had testified was found to be a member of Kuwait's Royal Family, in fact the daughter of Kuwait's ambassador to the U.S.[75] ACER PK13ZLH0100 laptop keyboard

SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

She hadn't lived in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion.

The details of the Hill & Knowlton public relations campaign, including the incubator testimony, were published in John R. MacArthur's Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War (Berkeley, CA: University of CA Press, 1992), HP Pavilion dv5-1132la Laptop Keyboard

and came to wide public attention when an Op-ed by MacArthur was published in The New York Times. This prompted a reexamination by Amnesty International, which had originally promoted an account alleging even greater numbers of babies torn from incubators than the original fake testimony. After finding no evidence to support it, the organization issued a retraction. President Bush then repeated the incubator allegations on television. HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Laptop Keyboard

At the same time, the Iraqi Army committed several well-documented crimes during its occupation of Kuwait, such as the summary execution without trial of three brothers after which their bodies were stacked in a pile and left to decay in a public street.[76] Iraqi troops also ransacked and looted private Kuwaiti homes; TOSHIBA Satellite A110 Series Laptop Keyboard

one residence was repeatedly defecated in.[77] A resident later commented, "The whole thing was violence for the sake of violence, destruction for the sake of destruction... Imagine a surrealistic painting by Salvador Dalí".[78] Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

The Gulf War began with an extensive aerial bombing campaign on 17 January 1991. The Coalition flew over 100,000 sorties, dropping 88,500 tons of bombs,[79] and widely destroying military and civilian infrastructure.[80] The air campaign was commanded by USAFLieutenant General Chuck Horner, who briefly served as U.S. Central Command's Commander-in-Chief – Forward while General Schwarzkopf was still in the U.S. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-201EP Laptop Keyboard

A day after the deadline set in Resolution 678, the Coalition launched a massive air campaign, which began the general offensive codenamed Operation Desert Storm. The first priority for Coalition forces was the destruction of Iraq's Air Force and anti-aircraft facilities. The sorties were launched mostly from Saudi Arabia and the six Coalition carrier battle groups (CVBG) in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.

 Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Saddam Hussein had closelymicromanaged Iraqi forces in the Iran–Iraq War, and initiative at lower levels was discouraged. Coalition planners hoped that Iraqi resistance would quickly collapse if deprived of command and control.  ASUS X53K Laptop Keyboard

The air campaign's third and largest phase targeted military targets throughout Iraq and Kuwait: Scud missile launchers, weapons research facilities, and naval forces. About one-third of the Coalition air power was devoted to attacking Scuds, some of which were on trucks and therefore difficult to locate. U.S. and British special operations forces had been covertly inserted into western Iraq to aid in the search and destruction of Scuds. TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Iraqi anti-aircraft defenses, including Man-portable air-defense systems, were surprisingly ineffective against Coalition aircraft and the Coalition suffered only 75 aircraft losses in over 100,000 sorties, 44 of which were the result of Iraqi action. Two of these losses are the result of aircraft colliding with the ground while evading Iraqi ground fired weapons.[81][82] One of these losses is a confirmed air-air victory.[83] HP G61-452EE Laptop Keyboard

Iraq's government made no secret that it would attack if invaded. Prior to the war's start, Tariq Aziz, Iraq's English-speaking Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister, was asked in the aftermath of the failed U.S.-Iraq peace talks in Geneva, Switzerland, by a reporter. "Mr. Foreign Minister, if war starts...will you attack?" TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

 His response was, "Yes, absolutely, yes."[84][85]

Five hours after the first attacks, Iraq's state radio broadcast declaring that "The dawn of victory nears as this great showdown begins." Iraq fired eight missiles the next day. These missile attacks were to continue throughout the war. A total of 88 Scud missiles were fired by Iraq during the war's seven weeks.[86] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

The Iraqi government hoped that many Arab states would withdraw from the Coalition, as they would be reluctant to fight.[56] Following however, President Bush pressured Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir not to bomb Iraq, fearing that if Israel bombed Iraq, the other Arab nations would either desert the Coalition or join Iraq. It was also feared that if Israel used Syrian or Jordanian airspace to bomb Iraq, ACER TravelMate 3212WXMi Laptop Keyboard

they would intervene in the war on Iraq's side or attack Israel. Israel was promised that the Coalition would deploy Patriot missiles.[87][88]

The Scud missiles were relatively ineffective, as firing at extreme range resulted in a dramatic reduction in accuracy and payload. SONY KFRSBA019A Laptop Keyboard

The missile attacks caused several to suffer fatal heart attacks. Of the injuries, 10 were considered moderate injuries, while one was considered a severe injury. When the first Iraqi missiles hit, some people injected themselves with an antidote for nerve gas. According to,[who?] a total of 74 died as a result of the Iraqi attacks, mostly from heart attacks.[citation needed] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

In response to the threat of Scuds, the U.S. rapidly sent a Patriot missile air defense artillery battalion along with two batteries of MIM-104 Patriot missiles for the protection of civilians. Coalition air forces were also extensively exercised in "Scud hunts" in the Iraqi desert, trying to locate the camouflaged trucks before they fired their missiles. On the ground, special operations forces also infiltrated Iraq, HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard

tasked with locating and destroying Scuds. Once special operations were combined with air patrols, the number of attacks fell sharply, then increased slightly as Iraqi forces adjusted to Coalition tactics. Compaq Presario CQ57-229wm laptop keyboard

The Royal Netherlands Air Force also deployed Patriot missiles to counter the Scud threat. The Dutch Defense Ministry later stated that the military use of the Patriot missile system was largely ineffective, but its psychological value was high, even though the Patriot missiles caused far more casualties and property damage than the Scuds themselves did.[89][90] Compaq Presario CQ42 laptop keyboard

It has been suggested that the fact that Scuds were only launched at night played an important role in limiting the number of casualties from Scud attacks.[12]

A Coalition Patriot that malfunctioned hit Ramat Gan on 22 January 1991, injuring 96 people, and possibly causing the deaths of three elderly people who died of strokes. HP AEUT5U00010 laptop keyboard

After the attack on Ramat Gan, commandos were loaded onto helicopters prepared to fly into Iraq, but the mission was called off after a phone call from U.S. Defense Secretary Dick Cheney, reporting on the extent of Coalition efforts to destroy Scuds and emphasizing that intervention could endanger U.S. forces.[91] HP Mini 110-3110sp laptop keyboard

In addition to the attacks, Scud missiles were fired into Saudi Arabia, and one missile was fired at Bahrain and another at Qatar. The missiles were fired at both military and civilian targets. One Saudi civilian was killed, and 78 others were injured. No casualties were reported in Bahrain or Qatar. The Saudi government issued all its citizens and expatriates with gas masks in the event of Iraq using missiles with chemical or biological warheads. The government broadcast alerts and 'all clear' messages over television to warn citizens during Scud attacks. HP AEAX8U00010 laptop keyboard

On 25 February 1991, a Scud missile hit a U.S. Army barracks of the 14th quartermaster Detachment, out of Greensburg, PA, stationed in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 soldiers and injuring over 100.[13]

On 29 January, Iraqi forces attacked and occupied the lightly defended Saudi city of Khafji with tanks and infantry. The Battle of Khafji ended two days later when the Iraqis were driven back by the Saudi Arabian National Guard and the U.S. Marine Corps, supported by Qatari forces. The allied forces provided close air support and used extensive artillery fire. Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

Casualties were heavy on both sides, although Iraqi forces sustained substantially more dead and captured than the allied forces. Eleven Americans were killed in two separate friendly fire incidents, an additional 14 U.S. airmen were killed when their AC-130 gunship was shot down by an Iraqi surface-to-air missile, and two U.S. soldiers were captured during the battle. Saudi and Qatari forces had a total of 18 dead. SONY VAIO VGN-N11M laptop keyboard

HP Pavilion ze5623 laptop keyboard

Iraqi forces in Khafji had 60–300 dead and 400 captured.

Khafji was a strategically important city immediately after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. Iraq's reluctance to commit severalarmored divisions to the occupation, and its subsequent use of Khafji as a launching pad into the initially lightly defended eastern Saudi Arabia is considered by many academics[who?] a grave strategic error.[citation needed] Not only would Iraq have secured a majority of Middle Eastern oil supplies, but it would have found itself better able to threaten the subsequent U.S. deployment along superior defensive lines. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

For months, American units in Saudi Arabia had been under almost constant Iraqi artillery fire, as well as threats from Scud missile or chemical attacks. On 24 February 1991, the 1st and 2nd Marine Divisions, and the 1st Light Armored Infantry Battalion crossed into Kuwait and headed toward Kuwait City. They encountered trenches, SONY VAIO PCG-FRV37 laptop keyboard

barbed wire, and minefields. However, these positions were poorly defended, and were overrun in the first few hours. Several tank battles took place, but apart from that, Coalition troops encountered minimal resistance, as most Iraqi troops surrendered. The general pattern was that the Iraqis would put up a short fight before surrendering. However, Iraqi air defenses shot down nine U.S. aircraft. Meanwhile, forces from Arab states advanced into Kuwait from the east, encountering little resistance and suffering few casualties. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Despite the successes of Coalition forces, it was feared that the Iraqi Republican Guard would escape into Iraq before it could be destroyed. It was decided to send British armored forces into Kuwait fifteen hours ahead of schedule, and to send U.S. forces after the Republican Guard. The Coalition advance was preceded by a heavy artillery and rocket barrage, IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard

after which 150,000 troops and 1,500 tanks began their advance. Iraqi forces in Kuwait counterattacked against U.S. troops, acting on a direct order from Saddam himself. Despite the intense combat, the Americans repulsed the Iraqis and continued to advance towards Kuwait City. HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr laptop keyboard

Kuwaiti forces were tasked with liberating the city. Iraqi troops offered only light resistance. The Kuwaitis lost one soldier killed and one plane shot down, and quickly liberated the city. On 27 February, Saddam ordered a retreat from Kuwait, and President Bush declared it liberated. However, an Iraqi unit at Kuwait International Airport appeared not to have gotten the message, and fiercely resisted. U.S. SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard

Marines had to fight for hours before securing the airport, after which Kuwait was declared secure. After four days of fighting, Iraqi forces were expelled from Kuwait. As part of a scorched earth policy, they set fire to nearly 700 oil wells, and placed land mines around the wells to make extinguishing the fires more difficult. SONY VAIO VGN-NW130D Laptop Keyboard

The first units to move into Iraq were three patrols of the British Special Air Service's B squadron, call signs Bravo One Zero,Bravo Two Zero, and Bravo Three Zero, in late January.[citation needed] These eight-man patrols landed behind Iraqi lines to gather intelligence on the movements of Scud mobile missile launchers, which couldn't be detected from the air, as they were hidden under bridges and camouflage netting during the day. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S5984 Laptop Keyboard

Other objectives included the destruction of the launchers and their fiber-optic communications arrays that lay in pipelines and relayed coordinates to the TEL operators that were launching attacks against Israel. The operations were designed to prevent any possible Israeli intervention. Due to lack of sufficient ground cover to carry out their assignment, One Zero and Three Zero abandoned their operations, while Two Zero remained, and was later compromised, with only Sergeant Chris Ryan escaping to Syria. TOSHIBA AEBD3U00050 Laptop Keyboard

Elements of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division of the U.S. Army performed a direct attack into Iraq on 15 February 1991, followed by one in force on 20 February that led directly through 7 Iraqi divisions which were caught off guard.[citation needed] From 15–20 February, the Battle of Wadi Al-Batin took place inside Iraq; this was the first of two attacks by 1 Battalion 5th Cavalry of the 1st Cavalry Division. ACER Aspire 5315 Laptop Keyboard

HP G72-a10SV Laptop Keyboard

It was a feint attack, designed to make the Iraqis think that a Coalition invasion would take place from the south. The Iraqis fiercely resisted, and the Americans eventually withdrew as planned back into the Wadi Al-Batin. Three U.S. soldiers were killed and nine wounded as well with only 1 M-2 IFV turret destroyed, but they had taken 40 prisoners and destroyed five tanks, and successfully deceived the Iraqis. HP G42-477TU Laptop Keyboard

This attack led the way for the XVIII Airborne Corps to sweep around behind the 1st Cav and attack Iraqi forces to the west. On 22 February 1991, Iraq agreed to a Soviet-proposed ceasefire agreement. The agreement called for Iraq to withdraw troops to pre-invasion positions within six weeks following a total cease-fire, and called for monitoring of the cease-fire and withdrawal to be overseen by the U.N. Security Council. SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

The Coalition rejected the proposal, but said that retreating Iraqi forces wouldn't be attacked,[citation needed] and gave twenty-four hours for Iraq to begin withdrawing forces. On 23 February, fighting resulted in the capture of 500 Iraqi soldiers. On 24 February, British and American armored forces crossed the Iraq-Kuwait border and entered Iraq in large numbers, taking hundreds of prisoners. Iraqi resistance was light, and 4 Americans were killed.[93] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Shortly afterwards, the U.S. VII Corps, in full strength and spearheaded by the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment, launched an armored attack into Iraq early on 24 February, just to the west of Kuwait, taking Iraqi forces by surprise. Simultaneously, the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps launched a sweeping “left-hook” attack across southern Iraq's largely undefended desert, led by the U.S. 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized). This movement's left flank was protected by France's 6th Light Armoured Division Daguet. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

The French force quickly overcame Iraq's 45th Infantry Division, suffering light casualties and taking a large number of prisoners, and took up blocking positions to prevent an Iraqi counter-attack on the Coalition flank. The movement's right flank was protected by the United Kingdom's 1st Armoured Division. Once the allies had penetrated deep into Iraqi territory, they turned eastward, TOSHIBA Satellite L40-14N Laptop Keyboard

launching a flank attack against the elite Republican Guard before it could escape. The Iraqis resisted fiercely from dug-in positions and stationary vehicles, and even mounted armored charges. HP 502958-001 Laptop Keyboard

Unlike many previous engagements, the destruction of the first Iraqi tanks did not result in a mass surrender. The Iraqis suffered massive losses and lost dozens of tanks and vehicles, while U.S. casualties were comparatively low, with a single Bradley knocked out. Coalition forces pressed another ten kilometers into Iraqi territory, and captured their objective within three hours. TOSHIBA Satellite 1870 Laptop Keyboard

They took 500 prisoners and inflicted heavy losses, defeating Iraq's 26th Infantry Division. A U.S. soldier was killed by an Iraqi land mine, another five by friendly fire, and thirty wounded during the battle. Meanwhile, British forces attacked Iraq's Medina Division and a major Republican Guard logistics base. In nearly two days of some of the war's most intense fighting, the British destroyed 40 enemy tanks and captured a division commander. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

HP 488590-001 Laptop Keyboard

Meanwhile, U.S. forces attacked the village of Al Busayyah, meeting fierce resistance. They suffered no casualties, but destroyed a considerable amount of military hardware and took prisoners. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

On 25 February 1991, Iraqi forces fired a Scud missile at an American barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The missile attack killed 28 U.S. military personnel.[94]

The Coalition advance was much swifter than U.S. generals had expected. On 26 February, Iraqi troops began retreating from Kuwait, after they had set its oil fields on fire (737 oil wells were set on fire). A long convoy of retreating Iraqi troops formed along the main Iraq-Kuwait highway. Although they were retreating, HP Mini 110-1125NR Laptop Keyboard

this convoy was bombed so extensively by Coalition air forces that it came to be known as the Highway of Death. Hundreds of Iraqi troops were killed. American, British, and French forces continued to pursue retreating Iraqi forces over the border and back into Iraq, eventually moving to within 150 miles (240 km) of Baghdad before withdrawing back to Iraq's border with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-SP5165RM Laptop Keyboard

One hundred hours after the ground campaign started, on 28 February, President Bush declared a ceasefire, and he also declared that Kuwait had been liberated.

Although it was said in Western media at the time that Iraqi troops numbered approximately 545,000 to 600,000, most experts today believe that the Iraqi Army's qualitative and quantitative descriptions were exaggerated, as they included both temporary and auxiliary support elements. Many Iraqi troops were young, under-resourced, and poorly trained conscripts. Compaq Presario CQ71-320SG laptop keyboard

The Coalition committed 540,000 troops, and a further 100,000 Turkish troops were deployed along the Turkish-Iraqi border. This caused a significant force dilution of Iraq's military by forcing it to deploy its forces along all its borders. This allowed the main thrust by the U.S. to possess not only a significant technological advantage, but also a numerical superiority. SONY VAIO VGN-NW120J laptop keyboard

The widespread support for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War equipped Iraq with military equipment from most major world arms dealers. This resulted in a lack of standardization in this large heterogeneous force, which additionally suffered from poor training and poor motivation. The majority of Iraqi armored forces still used old Chinese Type 59s and Type 69s, Soviet-made T-55s from the 1950s and 1960s, Compaq Presario CQ42-219AX laptop keyboard

and poor quality Asad Babil tanks (domestically assembled tank based on Polish T-72 hulls with other parts of mixed origin). These machines were not equipped with up-to-date equipment, such as thermal sights or laser rangefinders, and their effectiveness in modern combat was very limited. Lenovo 3000 G430 4152 laptop keyboard

The Iraqis failed to find an effective countermeasure to the thermal sights and sabot rounds used by the Coalition tanks. This equipment enabled them to engage and destroy Iraqi tanks from more than three times the range that Iraqi tanks could engage Coalition tanks. The Iraqi crews used old, cheap steel penetrators against the advanced Chobham Armour of the U.S. SONY 148084122 laptop keyboard

and British tanks, with ineffective results. The Iraqis also failed to exploit the advantage that could be gained from using urban warfare — fighting within Kuwait City – which could have inflicted significant casualties on the attacking forces. Urban combat reduces the range at which fighting occurs, HP Mini 110-1125NR laptop keyboard

and can negate some of the technological advantages of well-equipped forces.

The Iraqis also tried to use Soviet military doctrine, but the implementation failed due to the lack of skill of their commanders, and the preventive Coalition air strikes on communication centers and bunkers. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

In Coalition-occupied Iraqi territory, a peace conference was held where a ceasefire agreement was negotiated and signed by both sides. At the conference, Iraq was approved to fly armed helicopters on their side of the temporary border, ostensibly for government transit due to the damage done to civilian infrastructure. Soon after, these helicopters and much of Iraq's military were used to fight a Shi'ite uprising in the south. HP 646568-001 Laptop Keyboard

The rebellions were encouraged by an airing of "The Voice of Free Iraq" on 2 February 1991, which was broadcast from a CIA-run radio station out of Saudi Arabia. The Arabic service of the Voice of America supported the uprising by stating that the rebellion was large, and that they soon would be liberated from Saddam.[95] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7226 Laptop Keyboard

In the North, Kurdish leaders took American statements that they would support an uprising to heart, and began fighting, hoping to trigger a coup d'état. However, when no U.S. support came, Iraqi generals remained loyal to Saddam and brutally crushed the Kurdish uprising. Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and Kurdish areas of Iran. HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

These events later resulted in no-fly zones being established in northern and southern Iraq. In Kuwait, the Emir was restored, and suspected Iraqi collaborators were repressed. Eventually, over 400,000 people were expelled from the country, including a large number of Palestinians, due to PLOsupport of Saddam. Yasser Arafat didn't apologize for his support of Iraq, but after his death, the Fatah under Mahmoud Abbas' authority formally apologized in 2004.[96] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

There was some criticism of the Bush administration, as they chose to allow Saddam to remain in power instead of pushing on to capture Baghdad and overthrowing his government. In their co-written 1998 book, A World Transformed, Bush and Brent Scowcroft argued that such a course would have fractured the alliance, and would have had many unnecessary political and human costs associated with it. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Instead of a greater involvement of its own military, the U.S. hoped that Saddam would be overthrown in an internal coup d'état. The CIA used its assets in Iraq to organize a revolt, but the Iraqi government defeated the effort.[citation needed] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

On 10 March 1991, 540,000 U.S. troops began moving out of the Persian Gulf.

Coalition members included Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Egypt, France, Greece, Honduras, Hungary, Italy, Kuwait, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Niger, Norway, Oman, DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America.[98] HP G42-265LA Laptop Keyboard

Germany and Japan provided financial assistance and donated military hardware, but didn't send direct military assistance. This later became known as checkbook diplomacy.

The United Kingdom committed the largest contingent of any European state that participated in the war's combat operations. Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

Operation Granby was the code name for the operations in the Persian Gulf. British Army regiments (mainly with the 1st Armoured Division), Royal Air Force squadrons and Royal Navy vessels were mobilized in the Gulf. The Royal Air Force, using various aircraft, operated from airbases in Saudi Arabia. Almost 2,500 armored vehicles and 53,462 troops were shipped for action.[citation needed] LENOVO IdeaPad S9e 4187 Laptop Keyboard

Chief Royal Navy vessels deployed to the Gulf included Broadsword-class frigates, and Sheffield-class destroyers, other R.N. and R.F.A. ships were also deployed. The light aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal was deployed to the Mediterranean Sea.

Special operations forces were deployed in the form of several SAS squadrons. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

The second largest European contingent was from France, which committed 18,000 troops.[98]Operating on the left flank of the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps, the main French Army force was the 6th Light Armoured Division, including troops from the French Foreign Legion. Initially, the French operated independently under national command and control, but coordinated closely with the Americans (via CENTCOM) and Saudis. HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard

In January, the Division was placed under the tactical control of the XVIII Airborne Corps. France also deployed several combat aircraft and naval units. The French called their contribution Opération Daguet. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

Canada was one of the first countries to condemn Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed to join the U.S.-led Coalition. In August 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney committed the Canadian Forces to deploy a Naval Task Group. TOSHIBA Satellite P500 Laptop Keyboard

The destroyersHMCS Terra Nova and HMCS Athabaskan joined the maritime interdiction force supported by the supply ship HMCS Protecteur in Operation Friction. The Canadian Task Group led the Coalition maritime logistics forces in the Persian Gulf. A fourth ship, HMCS Huron, arrived in-theater after hostilities had ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

Following the U.N.-authorized use of force against Iraq, the Canadian Forces deployed a CF-18 Hornet and CH-124 Sea Kingsquadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties from the ground war. When the air war began, the CF-18s were integrated into the Coalition force and were tasked with providing air cover and attacking ground targets. SONY VAIO PCG-FR415M Laptop Keyboard

This was the first time since the Korean War that Canada's military had participated in offensive combat operations. The only CF-18 Hornet to record an official victory during the conflict was an aircraft involved in the beginning of the Battle of Bubiyan against the Iraqi Navy.[99]

The Canadian Commander in the Middle East was Commodore Kenneth J. Summers. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-15C Laptop Keyboard

Australia contributed a Naval Task Group, which formed part of the multi-national fleet in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, under Operation Damask. In addition, medical teams were deployed aboard a U.S. hospital ship, and a naval clearance diving team took part in de-mining Kuwait’s port facilities following the end of combat operations. Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

SONY VAIO VGN NR430E laptop keyboard

While the Australian forces didn't see combat, they did play a significant role in enforcing the sanctions put in place against Iraq following Kuwait's invasion, as well as other small support contributions to Operation Desert Storm. Following the war's end, Australia deployed a medical unit on Operation Habitat to northern Iraq as part of Operation Provide Comfort. Lenovo Thinkpad T410 laptop keyboard

The increased importance of air attacks from both warplanes and cruise missiles led to controversy over the number of civilian deaths caused during the war's initial stages. Within the war's first 24 hours, more than 1,000 sorties were flown, many against targets in Baghdad. The city was the target of heavy bombing, as it was the seat of power for Saddam and the Iraqi forces' command and control. This ultimately led to civilian casualties. HP Pavilion DV6-1128tx laptop keyboard

In one noted incident, two USAF stealth planes bombed a bunker in Amiriyah, causing the deaths of 408 Iraqi civilians who were in the shelter.[100] Scenes of burned and mutilated bodies were subsequently broadcast, and controversy arose over the bunker's status, with some stating that it was a civilian shelter, while others contended that it was a center of Iraqi military operations, and that the civilians had been deliberately moved there to act as human shields. DELL NSK-D8001 laptop keyboard

An investigation by Beth Osborne Daponte estimated total civilian fatalities at about 3,500 from bombing, and some 100,000 from the war's other effects.[101][102][103]

combat casualties is unknown, but is believed to have been heavy. Some estimate that Iraq sustained between 20,000 and 35,000 fatalities.[101] A report commissioned by the U.S. Air Force, estimated 10,000–12,000 Iraqi combat deaths in the air campaign, and as many as 10,000 casualties in the ground war.[104] This analysis is based on Iraqi prisoner of war reports. TOSHIBA P205-S6337 laptop keyboard

Saddam's government gave high civilian casualty figures in order to draw support from Islamic countries.[citation needed] The Iraqi government claimed that 2,300 civilians died during the air campaign.[citation needed] According to the Project on Defense Alternatives study, 3,664 Iraqi civilians, and between 20,000 and 26,000 military personnel, were killed in the conflict, while 75,000 Iraqi soldiers were wounded.[105] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ360 laptop keyboard

with one pilot listed as MIA (his remains were found and identified in August 2009). A further 145 Americans died in non-combat accidents.[110] The U.K. suffered 47 deaths (9 to friendly fire), France 2,[110]and the other countries, not including Kuwait, suffered 37 deaths (18 Saudis, 1 Egyptian, 6 UAE, and 3 Qataris).[110] At least 605 Kuwaiti soldiers were still missing 10 years after their capture.[116] ASUS A6000R laptop keyboard

The largest single loss of life among Coalition forces happened on 25 February 1991, when an Iraqi Al Hussein missile hit a U.S. military barrack in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 28 U.S. Army Reservists from Pennsylvania. In all, 190 Coalition troops were killed by Iraqi fire during the war, 113 of whom were American, out of a total of 358 Coalition deaths. Another 44 soldiers were killed, and 57 wounded, by friendly fire. 145 soldiers died of exploding munitions, or non-combat accidents.[citation needed] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The largest accident among Coalition forces happened on 21 March 1991, a Royal Saudi Air Force C-130H crashed in heavy smoke on approach to Ras Al-Mishab Airport, Saudi Arabia. 92 Senegalese soldiers were killed.

The number of Coalition wounded in combat seems to have been 776, including 458 Americans.[117] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

190 Coalition troops were killed by Iraqi combatants, the rest of the 379 Coalition deaths being from friendly fire or accidents. This number was much lower than expected. Among the American dead were three female soldiers. SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

While the death toll among Coalition forces engaging Iraqi combatants was very low, a substantial number of deaths were caused by accidental attacks from other Allied units. Of the 148 U.S. troops who died in battle, 24% were killed by friendly fire, a total of 35 service personnel. A further 11 died in detonations of allied munitions. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

HP Pavilion DV6-1105ee Laptop Keyboard

Nine British military personnel were killed in a friendly fire incident when a USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II destroyed a group of two Warrior IFVs.

Many returning Coalition soldiers reported illnesses following their action in the war, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome or Gulf War illness. There has been widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of the illness and the reported birth defects. Some factors considered as possibilities include exposure to depleted uranium, chemical weapons, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

anthrax vaccines given to deploying soldiers, and/or infectious diseases. Major Michael Donnelly, a USAF officer during the War, helped publicize the syndrome and advocated for veterans' rights in this regard. DELL FM8 Laptop Keyboard

Depleted uranium was used in the war in tank kinetic energy penetrators and 20–30 mm cannon ordnance. DU is apyrophoric, genotoxic, and teratogenic heavy metal. Many have cited its use during the war as a contributing factor to a number of instances of health issues in the conflict's veterans and surrounding civilian populations. However, scientific opinion on the risk is mixed.[118][119] HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

On the night of 26–27 February 1991, some Iraqi forces began leaving Kuwait on the main highway north of Al Jahra in a column of some 1,400 vehicles. A patrolling E-8 Joint STARS aircraft observed the retreating forces and relayed the information to the DDM-8 air operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.[120] These vehicles and the retreating soldiers were subsequently attacked, resulting in a 60 km stretch of highway strewn with debris—the Highway of Death. HP G61-631NR Laptop Keyboard

Chuck Horner, Commander of U.S. and allied air operations has written:

[By February 26], the Iraqis totally lost heart and started to evacuate occupied Kuwait, but airpower halted the caravan of Iraqi Army and plunderers fleeing toward Basra. This event was later called by the media "The Highway of Death." TOSHIBA Satellite A205-S4607 Laptop Keyboard

There were certainly a lot of dead vehicles, but not so many dead Iraqis. They'd already learned to scamper off into the desert when our aircraft started to attack. Nevertheless, some people back home wrongly chose to believe we were cruelly and unusually punishing our already whipped foes. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

By February 27, talk had turned toward terminating the hostilities. Kuwait was free. We were not interested in governing Iraq. So the question became "How do we stop the killing."[121]

Another incident during the war highlighted the question of large-scale Iraqi combat deaths. This was the "bulldozer assault", wherein two brigades from the U.S. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) were faced with a large and complex trench network, as part of the heavily fortified "Saddam Hussein Line". After some deliberation, they opted to use anti-mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers to simply plow over and bury alive the defending Iraqi soldiers. One newspaper story reported that U.S. commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers surrendered, escaping live burial during the two-day assault 24–26 February 1991. DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Patrick Day Sloyan of Newsday reported, "Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Vulcan armored carriers straddled the trench lines and fired into the Iraqi soldiers as the tanks covered them with mounds of sand. 'I came through right after the lead company,' [Col. Anthony] Moreno said. 'What you saw was a bunch of buried trenches with peoples' arms and things sticking out of them...'"[122] However, after the war, the Iraqi government claimed to have found only 44 bodies.[123] In his book The Wars Against Saddam, John Simpson alleges that U.S. Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

forces attempted to cover up the incident.[124] After the incident, the commander of the 1st Brigade said: "I know burying people like that sounds pretty nasty, but it would be even nastier if we had to put our troops in the trenches and clean them out with bayonets."[122] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Kuwait's expulsion policy was a response to PLO leader Yasser Arafat's alignment with Saddam, who had earlier invaded Kuwait. Prior to the war, Palestinians made up about 30% of Kuwait's 2.2 million residents.[125] The exodus took place during one week in March 1991, following Kuwait's liberation from Iraqi occupation. Kuwait expelled about 450,000 Palestinians from its territory,[126] an event, which has become the second largest displacement of Palestinians ever, and is related as an ethnic cleansing.[127] By 2011, many had returned to Kuwait and today[when?] the number of Palestinians living in Kuwait is 70,000 (5% Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

In the 23 June 1991 edition of The Washington Post, reporter Bart Gellman wrote: "Many of the targets were chosen only secondarily to contribute to the military defeat of [Iraq]. . . . Military planners hoped the bombing would amplify the economic and psychological impact of international sanctions on Iraqi society. . . . HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard

They deliberately did great harm to Iraq's ability to support itself as an industrial society. . . ."[129] In the Jan/Feb 1995 edition of Foreign Affairs, French diplomat Eric Rouleau wrote: "[T]he Iraqi people, who were not consulted about the invasion, have paid the price for their government's madness. . . . SAMSUNG R470 Laptop Keyboard

 Iraqis understood the legitimacy of a military action to drive their army from Kuwait, but they have had difficulty comprehending the Allied rationale for using air power to systematically destroy or cripple Iraqi infrastructure and industry: electric power stations (92 percent of installed capacity destroyed), COMPAQ Presario CQ41-226TX laptop keyboard

refineries (80 percent of production capacity), petrochemical complexes, telecommunications centers (including 135 telephone networks), bridges (more than 100), roads, highways, railroads, hundreds of locomotives and boxcars full of goods, radio and television broadcasting stations, cement plants, and factories producing aluminum, textiles, electric cables, and medical supplies."[130] However, the U.N. subsequently spent billions rebuilding hospitals, schools, and water purification facilities throughout the country.[131] HP Pavilion dv6-2157sb laptop keyboard

During the conflict, Coalition aircrew shot down over Iraq were displayed as prisoners of war on TV, most with visible signs of abuse. Amongst several testimonies to poor treatment,[132] Royal Air Force Tornado crew John Nichol and John Peters have both alleged that they were tortured during this time.[133][134]Nichol and Peters were forced to make statements against the war in front of television cameras. SONY VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q laptop keyboard

Members of British Special Air Service Bravo Two Zero were captured while providing information about an Iraqi supply line of Scud missiles to Coalition forces, only one, Chris Ryan, evaded capture while the group's other surviving members were violently tortured.[135] Flight surgeon (later General) Rhonda Cornum was raped by one of her captors[136] after the Black Hawk she was riding in was shot down while searching for a downed F-16 pilot. SONY Vaio PCG-K25 laptop keyboard

Since the war, the U.S. has had a continued presence of 5,000 troops stationed in Saudi Arabia – a figure that rose to 10,000 during the 2003 conflict in Iraq.[137] Operation Southern Watch enforced the no-fly zones over southern Iraq set up after 1991; oil exports through the Persian Gulf's shipping lanes were protected by the Bahrain-based U.S. Fifth Fleet. HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

Since Saudi Arabia houses Mecca and Medina, Islam's holiest sites, many Muslims were upset at the permanent military presence. The continued presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia after the war was one of the stated motivations behind the 11 September terrorist attacks,[137] the Khobar Towers bombing, and the date chosen for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings (7 August), which was eight years to the day that U.S. SONY VGN-FE28B laptop keyboard

troops were sent to Saudi Arabia.[138] Osama bin Ladeninterpreted the Islamic prophet Muhammad as banning the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia".[139] In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwa, calling for U.S. troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In a December 1999 interview with Rahimullah Yusufzai, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca" and considered this a provocation to the entire Islamic world.[140] ASUS F81 laptop keyboard

On 6 August 1990, after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Council's sanctions committee. From 1991 until 2003, the effects of government policy and sanctions regime led to hyperinflation, widespread poverty and malnutrition. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

During the late 1990s, the U.N. considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.[141][142][143] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The draining of the Qurna Marshes was an irrigation project in Iraq during and immediately after the war, to drain a large area of marshes in the Tigris–Euphrates river system. Formerly covering an area of around 3,000 square kilometers, HP Pavilion dm3-1002TU laptop keyboard

the large complex of wetlands were almost completely emptied of water, and the local Shi'ite population relocated, following the war and 1991 uprisings. By 2000, United Nations Environment Programme estimated that 90% of the marshlands had disappeared, causing desertification of over 7,500 square miles (19,000 km2).[citation needed] SAMSUNG R20 laptop keyboard

Many international organizations such as the U.N. Human Rights Commission, the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq, the Wetlands International, and Middle East Watch have described the project as a political attempt to force the Marsh Arabs out of the area through water diversion tactics.[144] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 laptop keyboard

On 23 January, Iraq dumped 400 million US gallons (1,500,000 m3) of crude oil into the Persian Gulf[146], causing the largest offshore oil spill in history at that time.[145] It was reported as a deliberate natural resources attack to keep U.S. Marines from coming ashore (Missouri and Wisconsin had shelled Failaka Island during the war to reinforce the idea that there would be an amphibious assault attempt).[147] About 30–40% of this came from allied raids on Iraqi coastal targets.[148] COMPAQ Presario V6002 laptop keyboard

The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to 700 oil wells as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by Coalition forces. The fires started in January and February 1991 and the last one was extinguished by November 1991.[149]  DELL E141395 laptop keyboard

The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6 million barrels (950,000 m3) of oil were lost each day. Eventually, privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait.[150] By that time, however, the fires had burned for approximately ten months, causing widespread pollution. Compaq Presario CQ42-291TX laptop keyboard

The cost of the war to the United States was calculated by the U.S. Congress to be $61.1 billion.[151] About $52 billion of that amount was paid by other countries: $36 billion by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf; $16 billion by Germany and Japan (which sent no combat forces due to their constitutions). About 25% of Saudi Arabia's contribution was paid in the form of in-kind services to the troops, TOSHIBA Satellite A500-ST5605 laptop keyboard

such as food and transportation.[151] U.S. troops represented about 74% of the combined force, and the global cost was therefore higher.

Apart from the impact on the Gulf states themselves, the resulting economic disruptions after the crisis affected many states. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI) undertook a study in 1991 to assess the effects on developing states and the international community's response. A briefing paper finalized on the day that the conflict ended draws on their findings which had two main conclusions: HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Laptop Keyboard

Many developing states were severely affected and while there has been a considerable response to the crisis, the distribution of assistance was highly selective.[152]

The ODI factored in elements of "cost" which included oil imports, remittance flows, re-settlement costs, loss of export earnings and tourism. For Egypt, the cost totaled $1 billion, HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

3% of GDP. Yemen had a cost of $830 million, 10% of GDP, while it cost Jordan $1.8 billion, 32% of GDP.

International response to the crisis on developing states came with the channeling of aid through The Gulf Crisis Financial Co-ordination Group. They were 24 states, comprising most of the OECD countries plus some Gulf states: Saudi Arabia, SONY VAIO VGN NR160E Laptop Keyboard

United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait. The members of this group agreed to disperse $14 billion in development assistance.

The World Bank responded by speeding up the disbursement of existing project and adjustment loans. The International Monetary Fund adopted two lending facilities – the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) and the Compensatory & Contingency Financing Facility (CCFF). The European Community offered $2 billion[clarification needed] in assistance.[152] TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

The war was heavily televised. For the first time, people all over the world were able to watch live pictures of missiles hitting their targets and fighters departing from aircraft carriers. Allied forces were keen to demonstrate their weapons' accuracy. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

In the United States, the "big three" network anchors led the war's network news coverage: ABC's Peter Jennings, CBS's Dan Rather, and NBC's Tom Brokaw were anchoring their evening newscasts when air strikes began on 16 January 1991. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

ABC News correspondent Gary Shepard, reporting live from Baghdad, told Jennings of the city's quietness. But, moments later, Shepard was back on the air as flashes of light were seen on the horizon and tracer fire was heard on the ground.

On CBS, viewers were watching a report from correspondent Allen Pizzey, who was also reporting from Baghdad, when the war began. HP Pavilion dv6-3124tx Laptop Keyboard

Rather, after the report was finished, announced that there were unconfirmed reports of flashes in Baghdad and heavy air traffic at bases in Saudi Arabia. On the "NBC Nightly News", correspondent Mike Boettcher reported unusual air activity in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. Moments later, Brokaw announced to his viewers that the air attack had begun. SONY VAIO VGN-CR121E Laptop Keyboard

Still, it was CNN whose coverage gained the most popularity and indeed its wartime coverage is often cited as one of the landmark events in the network's development. CNN correspondents John Holliman and Peter Arnett and CNN anchor Bernard Shaw relayed audio reports from Baghdad's Al-Rashid Hotel as the air strikes began. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The network had previously convinced the Iraqi government to allow installation of a permanent audio circuit in their makeshift bureau. When the telephones of all of the other Western TV correspondents went dead during the bombing, CNN was the only service able to provide live reporting. After the initial bombing, Arnett remained behind and was, for a time, the only American TV correspondent reporting from Iraq. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

In the United Kingdom, the BBC devoted the FM portion of its national speech radio station BBC Radio 4 to an eighteen-hour rolling news format creating Radio 4 News FM. The station was short lived, ending shortly after President Bush declared the ceasefire and Kuwait's liberation. However, it paved the way for the later introduction of Radio Five Live. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Two BBC journalists, John Simpson and Bob Simpson (no relation), defied their editors and remained in Baghdad to report on the war's progress. They were responsible for a report which included an "infamous cruise missile that travelled down a street and turned left at a traffic light."[153] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

Newspapers all over the world also covered the war and Time magazine published a special issue dated 28 January 1991, the headline "WAR IN THE GULF" emblazoned on the cover over a picture of Baghdad taken as the war began. HP Mini 210-1070NR Laptop Keyboard

U.S. policy regarding media freedom was much more restrictive than in the Vietnam War. The policy had been spelled out in a Pentagon document entitled Annex Foxtrot. Most of the press information came from briefings organized by the military. Only selected journalists were allowed to visit the front lines or conduct interviews with soldiers. Those visits were always conducted in the presence of officers, HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard

and were subject to both prior approval by the military and censorship afterward. This was ostensibly to protect sensitive information from being revealed to Iraq. This policy was heavily influenced by the military's experience with the Vietnam War, in which public opposition within the U.S. grew throughout the war's course. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

It wasn't only the limitation of information in the Middle East; media were also restricting what was shown about the war with more graphic depictions like Ken Jarecke's image of a burnt Iraqi soldier being pulled from the American AP wire whereas in Europe it was given extensive coverage.[154][155][156]

COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

About halfway through the war, Iraq's government decided to allow live satellite transmissions from the country by Western news organizations, and U.S. journalists returned en masse to Baghdad. NBC's Tom Aspell, ABC's Bill Blakemore, and CBS News' Betsy Aaronfiled filed reports, subject to acknowledged Iraqi censorship. Throughout the war, footage of incoming missiles was broadcast almost immediately. ASUS F5RI Laptop Keyboard

A British crew from CBS News (David Green and Andy Thompson), equipped with satellite transmission equipment traveled with the front line forces and, having transmitted live TV pictures of the fighting en route, arrived the day before the forces in Kuwait City, broadcasting live television from the city and covering the entrance of the Arab forces the next day. Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

Alternative media outlets provided views in opposition to the war. Deep Dish Television compiled segments from independent producers in the U.S. and abroad, and produced a ten-hour series that was distributed internationally, called The Gulf Crisis TV Project. The series' first program War, Oil and Power was compiled and released in 1990, before the war broke out. News World Order was the title of another program in the series; Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard

 it focused on the media's complicity in promoting the war, as well as Americans' reactions to the media coverage. In San Francisco, as a local example, Paper Tiger Television West produced a weekly cable television show with highlights of mass demonstrations, artists' actions, HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

lectures, and protests against mainstream media coverage at newspaper offices and television stations. Local media outlets in cities across the country screened similar oppositional media.

The organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) critically analyzed media coverage during the war in various articles and books, such as the 1991Gulf War Coverage: The Worst Censorship was at Home.[157] SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B laptop keyboard

Precision-guided munitions, such as the U.S. Air Force's AGM-130 guided missile, were heralded as key in allowing military strikes to be made with a minimum of civilian casualties compared to previous wars, although they weren't used as often as more traditional, less accurate bombs. Specific buildings in downtown Baghdad could be bombed while journalists in their hotels watched cruise missiles fly by. ASUS M50 laptop keyboard

Precision-guided munitions amounted to approximately 7.4% of all bombs dropped by the Coalition. Other bombs included cluster bombs, which disperse numerous submunitions,[158] and daisy cutters, 15,000-pound bombs which can disintegrate everything within hundreds of yards. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Global Positioning System units were important in enabling Coalition units to easily navigate across the desert. Since military GPS receivers were not available for most troops, many used commercially available units. To permit these to be used to best effect, the "selective availability" feature of the GPS system was turned off for the duration of Desert Storm, allowing these commercial receivers to provide the same precision as the military equipment.[159] SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard

Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) and satellite communication systems were also important. Two examples of this are the U.S. Navy's Grumman E-2 Hawkeye and the U.S. Air Force's Boeing E-3 Sentry. Both were used in command and control area of operations. These systems provided essential communications links between air, ground, and naval forces. It's one of several reasons why Coalition forces dominated the air war. HP Pavilion DV7t-2200 CTO laptop keyboard

American-made color photocopiers were used to produce some of Iraq's battle plans. Some of the copiers contained concealed high-tech transmitters that revealed their positions to American electronic warfare aircraft, leading to more precise bombings.[160] ASUS F5SL laptop keyboard

Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard

The role of Iraq's Scud missiles featured prominently in the war. Scud is a tactical ballistic missile that the Soviet Union developed and deployed among the forward deployed Red Army divisions in East Germany. The role of the Scuds which were armed with nuclear and chemical warheads was to destroy command, control, and communication facilities and delay full mobilization of Western German and Allied Forces in Germany. It could also be used to directly target ground forces. SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard

Scud missiles utilize inertial guidance which operates for the duration that the engines operate. Iraq used Scud missiles, launching them into both Saudi Arabia and Israel. Some missiles caused extensive casualties, while others caused little damage. Concerns were raised of possible chemical or biological warheads on these rockets, but if they existed, they weren't used. HP Pavilion DV7t-2200 CTO laptop keyboard

The U.S. Patriot missile was used in combat for the first time. The U.S. military claimed a high effectiveness against Scuds at the time, but later analysis gives figures as low as nine percent, with forty-five percent of the 158 Patriot launches being against debris or false targets.[161] The Dutch Ministry of Defense, which also sent Patriot missiles to protect civilians in Israel and Turkey, later disputed the higher claim.[90] ASUS F5SL laptop keyboard

Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard

Further, there is at least one incident of a software error causing a Patriot missile's failure to engage an incoming Scud, resulting in deaths.[162] Both the U.S. Army and the missile manufacturers maintained the Patriot delivered a "miracle performance" in the Gulf War.[161] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

ASUS F5R Laptop Keyboard

DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq

Iraq borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the west, Saudi Arabia to the south and southwest, and Kuwait to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city, Baghdad is in the center-east of the country. TOSHIBA Satellite A205-S4607 Laptop Keyboard

Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq has been known to the west by the Greek toponym 'Mesopotamia' (Land between the rivers) and has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing, law and the wheel. SONY Vaio PCG-K23 Laptop Keyboard

 [citation needed] At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian-Chaldean empires. It was also part of the Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.[6][7] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq's modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres. Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932. Compaq 6720s Laptop Keyboard

In 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Republic of Iraq was created. Iraq was controlled by the Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-led faction) from 1968 until 2003. After an invasion led by American and British forces, the Ba'ath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held. The American occupation of Iraq ended in 2011.[8] Iraq is home to two of the worlds holiest places among Shias; Najaf and Karbala.[9] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

The Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk (Biblical Hebrew Erech) and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for "city", UR.[10][11] HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard

Lower Mesopotamia has always been called "the land of Iraq" in Arabic, meaning "the fertile" or "deep-rooted land".[12][page needed] During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī ("Arabian Iraq") for lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī ("Persian Iraq"[13] or "Foreign Iraq"),[14] SAMSUNG R470 Laptop Keyboard

for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran.[13] The term historically included the plain south of the Hamrin Mountains and did not include the northernmost and westernmost parts of the modern territory of Iraq.[15] The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, contrasting it with the arid Arabian desert. HP Mini 110-3550tu Laptop Keyboard

As an Arabic word, عراق means "hem", "shore", "bank", or "edge",[citation needed] so that the name by folk etymology came to be interpreted as "the escarpment", viz. at the south and east of the Jazira Plateau, which forms the northern and western edge of the "al-Iraq arabi" area.[16]

The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq]. LENOVO IdeaPad S9e 4187 Laptop Keyboard

In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ (the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary and the first one in Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary) or /ɪˈræk/ (listed first by MQD), the American Heritage Dictionary, and the Random House Dictionary. /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in US media. TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq has the common epithet, the "Cradle of Civilization", as it was home to the earliest known civilization, the Sumerian civilization, which arose in the fertile Tigris-Euphrates river valley of southern Iraq in the Chalcolithic (Ubaid period). HP 519004-001 Laptop Keyboard

It was here in the late 4th millennium BC, that the world's first writing system and recorded history itself were born. The Sumerian civilization flourished for over 3,000 years[citation needed] and was succeeded by the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BC. Over two centuries of Akkadian dominance was followed by a Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC. An Elamite invasion in 2004 BC brought the Third Dynasty of Ur to an end. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

By the 21st century BC, a new Akkadian civilization, Assyria, had risen to dominance in northern Iraq, and by the 19th century BC a contemporaneous Amorite state, Babylonia, had formed in southern Iraq. TOSHIBA Satellite P500 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq was to be dominated by the Assyrians and Babylonians for the next 14 centuries, and under the Babylonian empire of Hammurabi, the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo Assyrian Empire of 911–609 BC, and the final Babylonian empire of 620–539 BC Iraq became a centre of world power. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

The Neo Assyrian Empire in particular put Iraq at the heart of a massive empire stretching from the Caucasus to Egypt and Arabia, and from Cyprus to Persia.

In the 6th century BC, Cyrus the Great of neighbouring Persia defeated the Neo-Babylonian Empire at the Battle of Opis and Iraq was subsumed into the Achaemenid Empire for nearly two centuries. SONY VAIO PCG-FR415M Laptop Keyboard

 In the late 4th century BC, Alexander the Great conquered the region, putting it under Hellenistic Seleucid rule for nearly two centuries.[17] The Parthians conquered the region during the reign of Mithridates I of Parthia (r. 171–138 BC). From Syria, the Romans invaded the region several times. ASUS F81 laptop keyboard

Christianity began to take hold in Iraq (particularly in Assyria) between the 1st and 3rd centuries, and Assyria became a center of the Church of the East. The Sassanid Persians under Ardashir I destroyed the Parthian Empire and conquered the region in 224 AD. The region was thus a province of the Persian Empire for four centuries, until the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century, although a number of indigenous states evolved during the Parthian era, such as Adiabene, Osroene and Hatra. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

The Islamic conquest in the 7th century established Islam in Iraq. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali moved his capital to Kufa "fi al-Iraq" when he became the fourth caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the province of Iraq from Damascus in the 7th century. (However, SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

eventually there was a separate, independent Caliphate of Córdoba.)

The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad in the 8th century as their capital, and it became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more than a million,[18] and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. HP Pavilion dm3-1002TU laptop keyboard

The Mongols destroyed the city during the siege of Baghdad in the 13th century.[19]

In 1257, Hulagu Khan amassed an unusually large army, a significant portion of the Mongol Empire's forces, SAMSUNG R20 laptop keyboard

for the purpose of conquering Baghdad. When they arrived at the Islamic capital, Hulagu Khan demanded surrender but the last Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim refused. This angered Hulagu, and, consistent with Mongol strategy of discouraging resistance, Baghdad was decimated.[20] Estimates of the number of dead range from 200,000 to a million.[21] SONY Vaio PCG-K23 laptop keyboard

The Mongols destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate and the House of Wisdom, which contained countless precious and historical documents. The city has never regained its status as major center of culture and influence. Some historians believe that the Mongol invasion destroyed much of the irrigation infrastructure that had sustained Mesopotamia for millennia. Other historians point to soil salination as the culprit in the decline in agriculture.[22] COMPAQ Presario V6002 laptop keyboard

The mid-14th-century Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world.[23] The best estimate for the Middle East is a death rate of a third.[24]

In 1401, warlord of Mongol descent Tamerlane (Timur Lenk) invaded Iraq. After the capture of Baghdad, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred.[25] Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur).[26]  DELL E141395 laptop keyboard

During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Black Sheep Turkmen ruled the area now known as Iraq. In 1466, the White Sheep Turkmen defeated the Black Sheep and took control. In the 16th century, most of the territory of present-day Iraq came under the control of Ottoman Empire as the eyalet of Baghdad. Compaq Presario CQ42-291TX laptop keyboard

Throughout most of the period of Ottoman rule (1533–1918) the territory of present-day Iraq was a battle zone between the rival regional empires and tribal alliances. The Safavid dynasty of Iran briefly asserted their hegemony over Iraq in the periods of 1508–1533 and 1622–1638.

By the 17th century, TOSHIBA Satellite A500-ST5605 laptop keyboard

the frequent conflicts with the Safavids had sapped the strength of the Ottoman Empire and had weakened its control over its provinces. The nomadic population swelled with the influx of bedouins from Najd, in the Arabian Peninsula. Bedouin raids on settled areas became impossible to curb.[27] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

During the years 1747–1831 Iraq was ruled by the Mamluk officers of Georgian[28] origin who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Porte, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order and introduced a program of modernization of economy and military. In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and imposed their direct control over Iraq. The population of Iraq had shrunk to under 5 million by the early 20th century.[29] SONY 147963021 Laptop Keyboard

During World War I, the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers. In the Mesopotamian campaign against the Central Powers, British forces invaded the country and suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the Siege of Kut (1915–1916). In 1916, the British and French made a plan for the post-war division of Western Asia under the Sykes-Picot Agreement.[30] British forces regrouped and captured Baghdad in 1917. An armistice was signed in 1918. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

During World War I the Ottomans were driven from much of the area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the Mesopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown but the British captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the end of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, of which 112,000 were combat troops. HP Pavilion DV6-1105ee Laptop Keyboard

On 11 November 1920 Iraq became a League of Nations mandate under British control with the name "State of Iraq". The British established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.[specify][31][page needed]

Faced with spiralling costs and influenced by the public protestations of war hero T. E. Lawrence in The Times, Britain replaced Arnold Wilson in October 1920 with new Civil Commissioner Sir Percy Cox. Cox managed to quell the rebellion, yet was also responsible for implementing the fateful policy of close cooperation with Iraq's Sunni minority.[32] DELL FM8 Laptop Keyboard

Britain granted independence to the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. Ghazi was followed by his underage son, Faisal II. 'Abd al-Ilah served as Regent during Faisal's minority. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and members of the Golden Square staged a coup d'état and overthrew the government of 'Abd al-Ilah. During the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War, the United Kingdom invaded Iraq for fear that the Rashid Ali government might cut oil supplies to Western nations because of his links to the Axis powers. The war started on 2 May and an armistice was signed 31 May. HP G61-631NR Laptop Keyboard

A military occupation followed the restoration of the pre-coup government of the Hashemite monarchy. The occupation ended on 26 October 1947. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashemite monarchy were Nuri as-Said, the autocratic Prime Minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, the former Regent who now served as an adviser to King Faisal II. HP Pavilion dv6-3124tx Laptop Keyboard

In 1958 a coup d'etat known as the 14 July Revolution led to the end of the monarchy. Brigadier General Abd al-Karim Qasim assumed power, but he was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif in a February 1963 coup. After his death in 1966 he was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, who was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party in 1968. Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr became the first Ba'ath President of Iraq but then the movement gradually came under the control of General Saddam Hussein, SONY VAIO VGN-CR121E Laptop Keyboard

who acceded to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979.

After the success of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, President Saddam Hussein invaded Iran a year and a half later, initiating the Iran–Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War). The war ended in stalemate in 1988, largely due to foreign support for Iraq. Between half a million and 1.5 million people from both sides died in the 1980–1988 war.[33] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

With economic loss of more than $500 billion for both sides. In 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed an Iraqi nuclear materials testing reactor as part of Operation Opera which became widely criticized because of Israel's involvement in a foreign conflict. In the final stages of Iran–Iraq War, the Ba'athist Iraqi regime led the Al-Anfal Campaign, a genocidal[34] campaign that targeted Iraqi Kurds,[35][36][37] and led to the killing of 50,000 – 100,000 civilians.[38] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

In August 1990, Iraq invaded and annexed Kuwait. This subsequently led to military intervention by United States-led forces in the Second Gulf War. The coalition forces proceeded with a bombing campaign targeting military targets.[39][40][41] Shortly after the war ended in 1991, Shia Muslim and Kurdish Iraqis led several uprisings against the regime, but these were successfully repressed by Hussein.[42] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

It is estimated that as many as 100,000 people were killed.[43] The US, UK, France and Turkey claiming authority under UNSCR 688, established the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Kurdish and Shiite populations from attacks by the Hussein regime's aircraft. HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

The Iraqi government claimed some inspectors were spies for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency.[44] On multiple occasions throughout the disarmament crisis, the UN passed further resolutions (see United Nations Resolutions concerning Iraq) compelling Iraq to comply with the terms of the ceasefire resolutions. HP Mini 210-1070NR Laptop Keyboard

During the late 1990s, the U.N. considered relaxing the Iraq sanctions because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. Studies dispute the number of people who died in south and central Iraq during the years of the sanctions.[45][46][47]

In October 1998, U.S. President Bill Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act, calling for "regime change" in Iraq, and initiated Operation Desert Fox. HP Probook 4520S Laptop Keyboard

DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

Kurdish Peshmerga became the northern front of the invasion and eventually defeated Ansar al-Islam in Northern Iraq before the invasion and Saddam's forces in the north. The battle led to the killing of a substantial number of militants and the uncovering of what was claimed to be a chemical weapons facility at Sargat.[48][page needed][49][page needed] In October 2002, the U.S. Congress passed the Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq, and in November the UN Security Council passed UNSCR 1441. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

On March 20, 2003, a United States-organized coalition invaded Iraq, with the stated reason that Iraq had failed to abandon its nuclear and chemical weapons development program in violation of U.N. Resolution 687. These claims were based on documents that were provided by the CIA and the government of the United Kingdom.[50] ASUS F5RI Laptop Keyboard

However, according to a comprehensive U.S. government report, no weapons of mass destruction have been found.[51] The Duelfer Report in 2004 found that Saddam Hussein had halted all nuclear weapons research in 1991, and had ended research into chemical and biological weapons in 1995.[52] Antiquated warheads containing trace amounts of the nerve gas cyclosarin were found, but U.S. military tests found they would "have limited to no impact if used by insurgents against coalition forces."[53] Lenovo 3000 C200 laptop keyboard

Following the invasion, the United States established the Coalition Provisional Authority to govern Iraq. In May 2003 L. Paul Bremer, the chief executive of the CPA, issued orders to exclude Baath Party members from the new Iraqi government (CPA Order 1) and to disband the Iraqi Army (CPA Order 2).[54] Acer eMachines E732 laptop keyboard

The decision to dissolve the army was blamed for leading many Sunnis, who led much of the army, to join the insurgency against American occupation.[55] The exclusion of people who belonged to the ruling party and the abolition of whole ministries were considered to have gutted the state and helped bring about chaos.[56] COMPAQ Presario CQ41-226TX laptop keyboard

The years following the invasion saw insurgency against Coalition and government troops as well as intense violence between Sunnis and Shias, death squads being a major threat to stability and security.[57] The Mahdi Army, a Shia militia created in the summer of 2003 by Moqtada Sadr, was considered by the Pentagon to be the greatest threat to Iraq's security.[58] HP Pavilion dv6-2157sb laptop keyboard

Its membership reached some 60,000 by December 2006.[58] Al-Qaeda was also involved in Iraq in an attempt to incite sectarian violence and greater chaos in the country by targeting Shia.[59] By 2007, the violence had increased to the point of being described in the United States' National Intelligence Estimate as a civil war. On December 30, 2006, Saddam Hussein was hanged.[60] Some of his closest associates were also executed.[61][62] Ali Hassan al-Majid (aka Chemical Ali) was executed in 2010 for his role in the Halabja poison gas attack in 1988.[63] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q laptop keyboard

There have since been many attacks on Iraqi minorities such as the Yezidis, Mandeans, Assyrians and others.[64] A U.S. troop surge was enacted to deal with increased violence; in September 2007, General Petraeus stated that the surge's goals were being met.[65] Violence in Iraq began to decline from the summer of 2007.[66] SONY Vaio PCG-K25 laptop keyboard

Iraq also suffered a cholera outbreak in 2007.[67]

Crime and violence initially spiked in the months following the US withdrawal from cities.[68][69] Despite the initial increase in violence, in November 2009, Iraqi Interior Ministry officials reported that the civilian death toll in Iraq fell to its lowest level since the 2003 invasion.[70]

U.S. troops continued to work with Iraqi forces after the pullout.[71] HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

The Status of Forces Agreement stated that U.S. troops would leave the country on December 31, 2011.[72] On the morning of December 18, the final contingent of U.S. troops to be withdrawn ceremonially exited over the border to Kuwait,[8] though the U.S. still maintains two bases and approximately 4,000 troops in the country.[73] SONY VGN-FE28B laptop keyboard

The Iraqi National Movement, reportedly representing the majority of Iraqi Sunnis, boycotted Parliament for several weeks in late 2011 and early 2012, claiming that the Shiite-dominated government was striving to sideline Sunnis. In January 2012, Vice President Tariq al-Hashimi, a Sunni, fled to the semi-autonomous Kurdish region after the government accused him of running a sectarian death squad; in February, ASUS F5SL laptop keyboard

a panel of Iraqi judges concluded that "death squads commanded by Mr. Hashimi carried out 150 attacks over six years against religious pilgrims, security officers and political foes".[73]

Insurgent forces continue to be active.[74] Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard

In February 2011 the Arab Spring protests spread to Iraq,[75] however these initial protests had largely ended by the end of 2011. In December 2012 a new series of protests began, largely driven by Sunni Arabs who feel marginalized by Iraq's Shia government.[76][77] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Iraq lies between latitudes 29° and 38° N, and longitudes 39° and 49° E (a small area lies west of 39°). Spanning 437,072 km2 (168,754 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in the world. It is comparable in size to the US state of California, and somewhat larger than Paraguay. ASUS F5R Laptop Keyboard

Iraq mainly consists of desert, but near the two major rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) are fertile alluvial plains, as the rivers carry about 60,000,000 m3 (78,477,037 cu yd) of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 m (11,847 ft) point, DELL Inspiron N5030 Laptop Keyboard

unnamed on the map opposite, but known locally as Cheekah Dar (black tent). Iraq has a small coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coast and along the Shatt al-Arab (known as arvandrūd: اروندرود among Iranians) there used to be marshlands, but many were drained in the 1990s. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as a democratic, federal parliamentary Islamic republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard

The National Alliance is the main Shia parliamentary bloc, and was established as a result of a merger of Prime Minister Nouri Maliki's State of Law Coalition and the Iraqi National Alliance.[78] The Iraqi National Movement is led by Iyad Allawi, HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr Laptop Keyboard

a secular Shia widely supported by Sunnis. The party has a more consistent anti-sectarian perspective than most of its rivals.[78] The Kurdistan List is dominated by two parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party led by Masood Barzani and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan headed by Jalal Talabani. Both parties are secular and enjoy close ties with the West.[78] HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

In 2010, according to the Failed States Index, Iraq was the world's seventh most politically unstable country.[79][80] The concentration of power in the hands of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki and growing pressure on the opposition have led to growing concern about the future of political rights in Iraq.[81] SONY VAIO VGN NR160E Laptop Keyboard

Since the establishment of the "no–fly zones" following the Gulf War of 1990–1991, the Kurds have established their own autonomous region. This has been a source of particular tension with Turkey. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

In October 2005, the new Constitution of Iraq was approved in a referendum with a 78% overall majority, although the percentage of support varying widely between the country's territories.[82] The new constitution was backed by the Shia and Ķurdish communities, but was rejected by Arab Sunnis. Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on December 15, 2005. All three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Law no. 188 of the year 1959 (Personal Status Law)[83] made polygamy extremely difficult, granted child custody to the mother in case of divorce, prohibited repudiation and marriage under the age of 16.[84] Article 1 of Civil Code also identifies Islamic law as a formal source of law.[85] TOSHIBA Satellite C650-182 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq had no Sharia courts but civil courts used Sharia for issues of personal status including marriage and divorce. In 1995 Iraq introduced Sharia punishment for certain types of criminal offenses.[86] The code is based on French civil law as well as Sunni and Jafari (Shi’ite) interpretations of Sharia.[87] HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard

In 2004, the CFA chief executive L. Paul Bremer said he would veto any constitutional draft stating that sharia is the principal basis of law.[88] The declaration enraged many local Shia clerics,[89] and by 2005 the United States had relented, allowing a role for sharia in the constitution to help end a stalemate on the draft constitution.[90]

The Iraqi Penal Code is the statutory law of Iraq. SONY VAIO PCG-F50/BP laptop keyboard

Iraqi security forces are composed of forces serving under the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Defense, as well as the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Bureau, reporting directly to the Prime Minister of Iraq, which oversees the Iraqi Special Operations Forces. Ministry of Defense forces include the Iraqi Army, SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F laptop keyboard

the Iraqi Air Force and the Iraqi Navy. The Peshmerga are a separate armed force loyal to the Kurdistan Regional Government. The regional government and the central government disagree as to whether they are under Baghdad's authority and to what extent.[91] Packard Bell Easynote LM81 laptop keyboard

The Iraqi Army is an objective counter-insurgency force that as of November 2009 includes 14 divisions, each division consisting of 4 brigades.[92] It is described as the most important element of the counter-insurgency fight.[93] Light infantry brigades are equipped with small arms, machine guns, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

RPGs, body armor and light armored vehicles. Mechanized infantry brigades are equipped with T-54/55 main battle tanks and BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicles.[93] As of mid-2008, logistical problems included a maintenance crisis and ongoing supply problems.[94] HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

The Iraqi Air Force is designed to support ground forces with surveillance, reconnaissance and troop lift. Two reconnaissance squadrons use light aircraft, three helicopter squadrons are used to move troops and one air transportation squadron uses C-130 transport aircraft to move troops, equipment, and supplies. It currently has 3,000 personnel. It is planned to increase to 18,000 personnel, with 550 aircraft by 2018.[93] SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B laptop keyboard

The Iraqi Navy is a small force with 1,500 sailors and officers, including 800 Marines, designed to protect shoreline and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration. The navy is also responsible for the security of offshore oil platforms. The navy will have coastal patrol squadrons, assault boat squadrons and a marine battalion.[93] The force will consist of 2,000 to 2,500 sailors by year 2010.[95] ASUS M50 laptop keyboard

On November 17, 2008, the U.S. and Iraq agreed to a Status of Forces Agreement,[96] as part of the broader Strategic Framework Agreement.[97] This agreement states "the Government of Iraq requests" U.S. forces to temporarily remain in Iraq to "maintain security and stability," and that Iraq has jurisdiction over military contractors, and US personnel when not on US bases or on–duty. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

On 12 February 2009, Iraq officially became the 186th State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under the provisions of this treaty, Iraq is considered a party with declared stockpiles of chemical weapons. Because of their late accession, Iraq is the only State Party exempt from the existing timeline for destruction of their chemical weapons. Specific criteria is in development to address the unique nature of Iraqi accession.[98] SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard

Iran–Iraq relations have flourished since 2005 by the exchange of high level visits: Iraqi PM Nouri al-Maliki makes frequent visits, along with Jalal Talabani visiting numerous times, to help boost bilateral cooperation in all fields. A conflict occurred in December 2009, when Iraq accused Iran of seizing an oil well on the border.[99] HP Pavilion DV7t-2200 CTO laptop keyboard

Relationships with Turkey are tense, largely because of the Kurdistan Regional Government, as clashes between Turkey and the PKK continue.[100] In October 2011, the Turkish parliament renewed a law that gives Turkish forces the ability to pursue rebels over the border in Iraq."[101]

Relations between Iraq and its Kurdish population have been sour in recent history, especially with Saddam Hussein's genocidal campaign against them in the 1980s. ASUS F5SL laptop keyboard

After uprisings during the early 90s, many Kurds fled their homeland and no-fly zones were established in northern Iraq to prevent more conflicts. Despite historically poor relations, some progress has been made, and Iraq elected its first Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani, in 2005. Furthermore, Kurdish is now an official language of Iraq alongside Arabic according to Article 4 of the constitution.[102] Compaq Presario CQ35 laptop keyboard

LGBT rights in Iraq remain limited. Although decriminalized, homosexuality remains stigmatized in Iraqi society. Targeting people because of their gender identity or sexual orientation is not uncommon and is usually carried out in the name of family honor. People who dress in emo style are mistakenly associated with homosexuality and may suffer the same fate.[103] A BBC article published in 2009, SONY VAIO VGN-AR350E laptop keyboard

which includes interviews of homosexual and transgendered Iraqis, suggests that LGBT people were less subject to violence under Hussein's regime.[104]

Iraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. The lack of development in other sectors has resulted in 18%–30% unemployed and a depressed per capita GDP of $4,000.[1] HP Pavilion DV7t-2200 CTO laptop keyboard

 Public sector employment accounted for nearly 60% of full-time employment in 2011.[105] The oil export industry, which dominates the Iraqi economy, generates very little employment.[105] Currently only a modest percentage of women (the highest estimate for 2011 was 22%) participate in the labour force.[105] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

Prior to US occupation, Iraq's centrally planned economy prohibited foreign ownership of Iraqi businesses, ran most large industries as state-owned enterprises, and imposed large tariffs to keep out foreign goods.[106] After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, the Coalition Provisional Authority quickly began issuing many binding orders privatizing Iraq's economy and opening it up to foreign investment. Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

On November 20, 2004, the Paris Club of creditor nations agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown another $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief will be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.[107] SAMSUNG X20 Laptop Keyboard

In February 2011, Citigroup included Iraq in a group of countries which it described as 'Global Growth Generators', that it argued will enjoy significant economic growth in the future.[108]

The official currency in Iraq is the Iraqi dinar. The Coalition Provisional Authority issued new dinar coins and notes, with the notes printed by De La Rue using modern anti-forgery techniques.[109] Jim Cramer's October 20, 2009 endorsement of the Iraqi Dinar on CNBC has further piqued interest in the investment.[110] HP Pavilion dv6-3205tu Laptop Keyboard

 [111]

According to the Overseas Development Institute, international NGOs face challenges in carrying out their mission, leaving their assistance "piecemeal and largely conducted undercover, hindered by insecurity, a lack of coordinated funding, limited operational capacity and patchy information".[111] International NGOs have been targeted and during the first 5 years, 94 aid workers were killed, 248 injured, SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B Laptop Keyboard

  24 arrested or detained and 89 kidnapped or abducted.[111]

With its 143.1 billion barrels (2.275×1010 m3) of proved oil reserves, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of oil reserves.[112][113] Oil production levels reached 3.4 million barrels per day by December 2012.[114] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

Iraq intends to increase its production to 5 million barrels per day by 2014.[115] Only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone.[116] Iraq was one of the founding members of OPEC.[117]

As of 2010, despite improved security and billions of dollars in oil revenue, Iraq still generates about half the electricity that customers demand, leading to protests during the hot summer months.[118]  Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

The Iraq oil law is a proposed piece of legislation submitted to the Iraqi Council of Representatives in May 2007.[119] The Iraqi government has yet to reach an agreement on the law. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

According to a US Study from May 2007, between 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m3/d) and 300,000 barrels per day (48,000 m3/d) of Iraq’s declared oil production over the past four years could have been siphoned off through corruption or smuggling.[120] In 2008, Al Jazeera reported $13 billion of Iraqi oil revenues in U.S. care was improperly accounted for, of which $2.6 billion is totally unaccounted for.[121] HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

In June 2008, the Iraqi Oil Ministry announced plans to go ahead with small one- or two-year no-bid contracts to Exxon Mobil, Shell, Total and BP — once partners in the Iraq Petroleum Company — along with Chevron and smaller firms to service Iraq’s largest fields.[122] HP 9J.N0Y82.H01 laptop keyboard

These plans were canceled in September because negotiations had stalled for so long that the work could not be completed within the time frame, according to Iraqi oil minister Hussain al-Shahristani. Several United States senators had also criticized the deal, arguing it was hindering efforts to pass the hydrocarbon law.[123] HP Pavilion dv6-2044el laptop keyboard

On June 30 and December 11, 2009, the Iraqi ministry of oil awarded service contracts to international oil companies for some of Iraq's many oil fields.[124][125] Oil fields contracted include the SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B laptop keyboard

An April 2009 estimate of the total Iraqi population is 31,234,000.[2] Iraq's population was estimated at only 2 million in 1878.[129] Iraq's population as announced by the government has reached 35 million amid a post-war population boom.[130] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

According to the Central Intelligence Agency, Arabs form 75%–80% of the population.[1] Minorities include a 15%–20% of Kurds, and Turkoman, Assyrian, or other make up 5% of the population.[1] Around 20,000 Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq.[131] The Iraqi population includes a community of around 30,000 Circassians,[132][133] 20,000 ACER Aspire 1410-742G16n Laptop Keyboard

Armenians, and a community of 2,500 Chechens.[134] In southern Iraq there is a community of Iraqis of African descent, a legacy of the slavery practiced in the Islamic Caliphate beginning before the Zanj Rebellion of the 9th century, and Basra's role as a key port.[135] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

Iraq is a Muslim-majority country; Islam accounts for 95% of the population, while Christianity or other religions for just 3%.[136] It has a mixed Shia and Sunnis population. Most sources estimate that around 65% of the population in Iraq are Shia, and around 35% are Sunni.[1][137] Christians have inhabited what is modern day Iraq for about 2,000 years.[138] Assyrians, most of whom are adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church, HP Pavilion dv6-3205tu Laptop Keyboard

Syriac Orthodox Church and the Assyrian Church of the East account for most of the Christian population, along with Armenians belonging to the Armenian Apostolic Church. Estimates for the numbers of Christians suggest a decline from 8–10% in the mid-20th century to 5% around the start of the 21st century, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

to around 4% in 2008. More than half of Iraqi Christians have fled to neighboring countries since the start of the war, and few plan to return.[139]

Arabic is the majority language, Kurdish is spoken by approximately 15–20% of the population, South Azeri (called Turkmen locally),[102] Neo-Aramaic and others by 5%.[1] Other smaller minority languages include Mandaic Shabaki, HP Pavilion dv6-2126eo Laptop Keyboard

Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

Armenian, and Persian. Arabic, Kurdish, Persian, and South Azeri are written with versions of the Arabic script, the Neo-Aramaic languages in the Syriac script and Armenian is written in the Armenian script. HP Pavilion dv6-2132ec Laptop Keyboard

Prior to the invasion in 2003, Arabic was the sole official language. Since the new Constitution of Iraq approved in June 2004, both Arabic and Kurdish are official languages,[141] while Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and South Azeri (referred to as respectively "Syriac" and "Turkmen" in the constitution) are recognized regional languages.[142] SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

In addition, any region or province may declare other languages official if a majority of the population approves in a general referendum

There are also small populations of Mandaeans, Shabaks, Yarsan and Yezidis. The Iraqi Jewish community, numbering around 150,000 in 1941ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

, has almost entirely left the country.[140]

The dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country after the Multi-National invasion of Iraq in 2003, mostly to Syria and Jordan.[144] The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre estimates an additional 1.9 million are currently displaced within the country.[145] TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

In 2007, the U.N. said that about 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled and that most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return.[146] Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries.[147][148] In recent years the diaspora seems to be returning with the increased security; ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

the Iraqi government claimed that 46,000 refugees have returned to their homes in October 2007 alone.[149]

In November 2006, the UNHCR estimated that 1.8 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, who are mostly Sunni Muslims and Christians. Nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month, while another 1.6 million were displaced internally.[150] According to official United States Citizenship and Immigration Services statistics, 58,811 Iraqis have been granted refugee-status citizenship as of May 25, 2011.[151] HP Pavilion dv6-2126eo Laptop Keyboard

Iraq is known primarily for its rich maqam heritage which has been passed down orally by the masters of the maqam in an unbroken chain of transmission leading up to the present. The maqam al-Iraqi is considered to be the most noble and perfect form of maqam. Al-maqam al-Iraqi is the collection of sung poems written either in one of the sixteen meters of classical Arabic or in Iraqi dialect (Zuhayri).[152] This form of art is recognized by UNESCO as “an intangible heritage of humanity”.[153]  ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Early in the 20th century, many of the most prominent musicians in Iraq were Jewish.[154] In 1936, Iraq Radio was established with an ensemble made up entirely of Jews, with the exception of the percussion player. At the nightclubs of Baghdad, ensembles consisted of oud, qanun and two percussionists, HP Pavilion dv6-2126eo Laptop Keyboard

while the same format with a ney and cello were used on the radio.[154]

The most famous singer of the 1930s–1940s was perhaps the Jew Salima Pasha (later Salima Murad).[154][155] The respect and adoration for Pasha were unusual at the time, since public performance by women was considered shameful and most female singers were recruited from brothels.[154] DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

The most famous early composer from Iraq was Ezra Aharon, an oud player, while the most prominent instrumentalist was Daoud Al-Kuwaiti. Daoud and his brother Saleh formed the official ensemble for the Iraqi radio station and were responsible for introducing the cello and ney into the traditional ensemble.[154] HP V061130AS1 Laptop Keyboard

Some important cultural institutions in the capital include the Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra – rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the Occupation of Iraq but have since returned to normal. HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

The National Theatre of Iraq was looted during the 2003 invasion, but efforts are underway to restore it. The live theatre scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 movie theatres were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions. DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the Academy of Music, Institute of Fine Arts and the Music and Ballet school Baghdad. Baghdad also features a number of museums including the National Museum of Iraq – which houses the world's largest and finest collection of artifacts and relics of Ancient Iraqi civilizations; some of which were stolen during the Occupation of Iraq. SONY V072078BS1 laptop keyboard

The capital, Ninus or Nineveh, was taken by the Medes under Cyaxares, and some 200 years after Xenophon passed over its site, then mere mounds of earth. It remained buried until 1845, when Botta and Layard discovered the ruins of the Assyrian cities. The principal remains are those of Khorsabad, 10 miles (16 km) N.E. of Mosul; HP Mini 110-3020la laptop keyboard

of Nimroud, supposed to be the ancient Calah; and of Kouyunjik, in all probability the ancient Nineveh. In these cities are found fragments of several great buildings which seem to have been palace-temples. They were constructed chiefly of sun-dried bricks, and all that remains of them is the lower part of the walls, decorated with sculpture and paintings, portions of the pavements, a few indications of the elevation, HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr laptop keyboard

and some interesting works connected with the drainage.

Iraqi cuisine has a long history going back some 10,000 years – to the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Ancient Persians.[157] Tablets found in ancient ruins in Iraq show recipes prepared in the temples during religious festivals – the first cookbooks in the world.[157] Ancient Iraq, or Mesopotamia, HP Pavilion DV4150US laptop keyboard

was home to many sophisticated and highly advanced civilizations, in all fields of knowledge – including the culinary arts.[157] However, it was in the medieval era when Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate that the Iraqi kitchen reached its zenith.[157] Today the cuisine of Iraq reflects this rich inheritance as well as strong influences from the culinary traditions of neighbouring Turkey, Iran and the Greater Syria area.[157] HP Pavilion DV7-3110tx laptop keyboard

Some characteristic ingredients of Iraqi cuisine include – vegetables such as aubergine, tomato, okra, onion, potato, courgette, garlic, peppers and chilli, cereals such as rice, bulgur wheat and barley, pulses and legumes such as lentils, chickpeas and cannellini, fruits such as dates, raisins, apricots, figs, grapes, melon, pomegranate and citrus fruits TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-SP5010L laptop keyboard

, especially lemon and lime.[157]

Similarly with other countries of Western Asia, chicken and especially lamb are the favourite meats. Most dishes are served with rice – usually Basmati, grown in the marshes of southern Iraq.[157] Bulgur wheat is used in many dishes – having been a staple in the country since the days of the Ancient Assyrians.[157] IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard

After the end of the full state control in 2003, there were a period of significant growth in the broadcast media in Iraq. Immediately, and the ban on satellite dishes is no longer in place, and by mid-2003, according to a BBC report, HP Pavilion dv4-1199ea laptop keyboard

there were 20 radio stations from 0.15 to 17 television stations owned by Iraqis, and 200 Iraqi newspapers owned and operated. Significantly, there have been many of these newspapers in numbers disproportionate to the population of their locations. For example, in Najaf, which has a population of 300,000, is being published more than 30 newspapers and distributed. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

Iraqi media expert and author of a number of reports on this subject, Ibrahim Al Marashi, identifies four stages of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 where they had been taking the steps that have significant effects on the way for the later of the Iraqi media since then. Stages are: pre-invasion preparation, and the war and the actual choice of targets, the first post-war period, and a growing insurgency and hand over power to the Iraqi Interim Government (IIG) and Prime Minister Iyad Allawi.[156][page needed] SONY VAIO VGN-FZ210CE laptop keyboard

In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 6.84% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 6.96 physicians and 13.92 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[158] The life expectancy at birth was 68.49 years in 2010, or 65.13 years for males and 72.01 years for females.[159] This is down from a peak life expectancy of 71.31 years in 1996.[160] HP Pavilion dv6-2021el laptop keyboard

Iraq had developed a centralized free health care system in the 1970s using a hospital based, capital-intensive model of curative care. The country depended on large-scale imports of medicines, medical equipment and even nurses, paid for with oil export income, according to a “Watching Brief” report issued jointly by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in July 2003. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-302SL laptop keyboard

Unlike other poorer countries, which focused on mass health care using primary care practitioners, Iraq developed a Westernized system of sophisticated hospitals with advanced medical procedures, provided by specialist physicians. The UNICEF/WHO report noted that prior to 1990, 97% of the urban dwellers and 71% of the rural population had access to free primary health care; just 2% of hospital beds were privately managed. [161] HP Pavilion dv6-2010sa laptop keyboard

The CIA World Factbook estimates that in 2000 the adult literacy rate was 84% for males and 64% for females, with UN figures suggesting a small fall in literacy of Iraqis aged 15–24 between 2000 and 2008, from 84.8% to 82.4%.[162] The Coalition Provisional Authority undertook a complete reform of Iraq’s education system: Lenovo Thinkpad T520 laptop keyboard

Baathist ideology was removed from curricula and there were substantial increases in teacher salaries and training programs, which the Hussein regime neglected in the 1990s. In 2003 an estimated 80% of Iraq’s 15,000 school buildings needed rehabilitation and lacked basic sanitary facilities, and most schools lacked libraries and laboratories. Compaq Presario CQ42-258VX laptop keyboard

Education is mandatory only through the sixth grade, after which a national examination determines the possibility of continuing into the upper grades. Although a vocational track is available to those who do not pass the exam, few students elect that option because of its poor quality. Boys and girls generally attend separate schools beginning with seventh grade. In 2005 obstacles to further reform were poor security conditions in many areas, TOSHIBA Satellite l20-c430 laptop keyboard

a centralized system that lacked accountability for teachers and administrators, and the isolation in which the system functioned for the previous 30 years. Few private schools exist. Prior to the occupation of 2003, some 240,000 persons were enrolled in institutions of higher education.

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the University of Dohuk (1717th worldwide), the University of Baghdad (3160th) and Babylon University (3946th).[163] SONY Vaio PCG-K415B Laptop Keyboard

The Umayyad Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الأموية‎, trans. Al-Ḫilāfa al-ʾumawiyya) was the second of the four major Islamic caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was centered on the Umayyad dynasty (Arabic: الأمويون‎, al-ʾUmawiyyūn, or بنو أمية, Banū ʾUmayya, "Sons of Umayya"), hailing from Mecca. The Umayyad family had first come to power under the third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656),  IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

but the Umayyad regime was founded by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of Syria, after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in 661 CE/41 AH. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Transoxiana, Sind, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.79 million square miles (15,000,000 km2), making it the largest empire the world had yet seen, and the fifth largest ever to exist.[5] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

At the same time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were widely perceived as absolutist, oppressive and unjust, deviating from the precepts of Islam. Coupled with rivalries between the Arab tribes, their rule was plagued by unrest in the provinces outside Syria, most notably in the Second Muslim Civil War of 680–692 CE and the Berber Revolt of 740–743 CE. During the Second Civil War, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

leadership of the Umayyad clan shifted from the Sufyanid branch of the family to the Marwanid branch. As the constant campaigning exhausted the resources and manpower of the state, the Umayyads, weakened by the Third Muslim Civil War of 744–747 CE, were finally toppled by the Abbasid Revolution in 750 CE/132 AH. DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

According to tradition, the Umayyad family (also known as the Banu Abd-Shams) and Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Abd Manaf ibn Qusai and they are originally from the city of Mecca. Muhammad descended from Abd Manāf via his son Hashim, while the Umayyads descended from Abd Manaf via a different son, Abd-Shams, whose son was Umayya. The two families are therefore considered to be different clans (those of Hashim and of Umayya, respectively) of the same tribe (that of the Quraish). ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard

However Muslim Shia historians point out that Umayya was an adopted son of Abd Shams so he was not a blood relative of Abd Manaf ibn Qusai. Umayya was later discarded from the noble family.[6] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

While the Umayyads and the Hashimites may have had bitterness between the two clans before Muhammad, the rivalry turned into a severe case of tribal animosity after the Battle of Badr. The battle saw three top leaders of the Umayyad clan (Utba ibn Rabi'ah, Walid ibn Utbah and Shaybah) killed by Hashmites (Ali, Hamza ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and Ubaydah ibn al-Harith) in a three-on-three melee.[7] DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

This fueled the opposition of Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sufyan sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging another battle with Muslims based in Medina only a year after the Battle of Badr. He did this to avenge the defeat at Badr. The Battle of Uhud is generally believed by scholars to be the first defeat for the Muslims, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

as they had incurred greater losses than the Meccans. After the battle, Abu Sufyan's wife Hind, who was also the daughter of Utba ibn Rabi'ah is reported to have cut open the corpse of Hamza, taking out his liver which she then attempted to eat.[8] Within five years after his defeat in the Battle of Uhud however, Muhammad took control of Mecca[9] TOSHIBA NSK-TK001 Laptop Keyboard

and announced a general amnesty for all. Abu Sufyan and his wife Hind embraced Islam on the eve of the conquest of Mecca, as did their son (the future caliph Muawiyah I). The Conquest of Mecca while overwhelming for the Umayyads for the time being, further fueled their hatred towards the Hashmites[neutrality is disputed]; this would later result in battles between Muawiyah I and Ali and then killing of Husayn ibn Ali along with his family and a few friends on the orders of Yazid ibn Muawiyah at the Battle of Karbala.[10]  Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard

Most historians[who?] consider Caliph Muawiyah (661–80) to have been the second ruler of the Umayyad dynasty, even though he was the first to assert the Umayyads' right to rule on a dynastic principle. It was really the caliphate of Uthman Ibn Affan (644–656), a member of Umayyad clan himself, HP Pavilion DV6-1000 Laptop Keyboard

that witnessed the revival and then the ascendancy of the Umayyad clan to the corridors of power. Uthman, during his reign, placed some of the trusted members of his clan at prominent and strong positions throughout the state. Most notable was the appointment of Marwan ibn al-Hakam, Uthman's first cousin, HP 492991-001 Laptop Keyboard

as his top advisor, which created a stir amongst the Hashmite companions of Muhammad, as Marwan along with his father Al-Hakam ibn Abi al-'As had been permanently exiled from Medina by Muhammad during his lifetime. Uthman also appointed Walid ibn Uqba, Uthman's half-brother, as the governor of Kufa, who was accused, SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

by Hashmites, of leading prayer while under the influence of alcohol.[11] Uthman also consolidated Muawiyah's governorship of Syria by granting him control over a larger area[12] and appointed his foster brother Abdullah ibn Saad as the Governor of Egypt. However, since Uthman never named an heir, he cannot be considered the founder of a dynasty. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.[13][14] To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.[15][16][17][18][19] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

Muawiyah I was a very successful governor and built up a very loyal and disciplined army from the old Roman Syrian army. He also befriended Amr ibn al-As who had conquered Egypt but was removed by Uthman ibn al-Affan. ACER Aspire 4743 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Quran and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the The Farewell Sermon.[20][21][22][23][24][25][26] Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Lenovo Thinkpad T520 laptop keyboard

formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.[27] Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a governor or the commander was becoming attracted to wealth, he had him removed from his position.[28] TOSHIBA Satellite U205-s5044 laptop keyboard

Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.[29][30][31][32] TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard

As Uthman ibn al-Affan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah I slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq showed some Egyptians, the house of Uthman ibn al-Affan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan.[33] HP Pavilion ze5200 laptop keyboard

After the assassination of Uthman in 656, Ali, a member of the Quraysh tribe and a cousin of Muhammad, was elected as the caliph. He soon met with resistance from several factions, owing to his relative political inexperience. Ali moved his capital from Medina to Kufa. The resulting conflict, which lasted from 656 until 661, HP Pavilion DV6-1000 laptop keyboard

is known as the First Fitna ("civil war"). Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprils arrested. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict. Aisha, the wife of Muhammad, and Talhah and Al-Zubayr, two of the companions of Muhammad when to Basra to tell Ali to arrest the culprits who murdered Uthman. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Marwan I and other people who wanted conflict manipulated every one to fight. The two sides clashed at the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali won a decisive victory. HP Pavilion DV6-1128el laptop keyboard

Following this battle, Ali fought a battle against Muawiyah, known as the Battle of Siffin. The battle was stopped before either side had achieved victory, and the two parties agreed to arbitrate their dispute. After the battle Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah and an arbitrator and Ali appointed Abu Musa Ashaari. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10 miles north west of Maan in Jordon in February 658. COMPAQ Presario V6106AU laptop keyboard

Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Ashaari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah I. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr. Ali refused to accept the verdict and found him self technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. SONY A1565184C laptop keyboard

This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire the Kharijites. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, "arbitration belongs to God alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who leave"). IBM ThinkPad T40-2374 laptop keyboard

In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Nahrawan. Although Ali won the battle, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing, and in the following years some Syrians seem to have acclaimed Muawiyah as a rival caliph.[34] TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6946 laptop keyboard

Ali was assassinated in 661, by a Kharijite partisan. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fourth Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan-Muawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not establish a dynasty.[35][36] This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Mu'awiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.[37] TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

HP AESP7U00110 Laptop Keyboard

After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". After making every one else fight,[38] the Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. HP G72-b67CA Laptop Keyboard

Syria would remain the base of Umayyad power until the end of the dynasty in 750 AD. However, this Dynasty became reborn in Cordoba (Al Andalus, today's Portugal and Spain) in the form of an Emirate and then a Caliphate, lasting until 1031 AD. Muslim rule continued in Iberia for another 500 years in several forms: Taifas, Berber kingdoms, and under the Kingdom of Granada until the 16th century AD. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

In the year 712, Muhammad bin Qasim, an Umayyad general sailed from the khaleej into Sindh in Pakistan and conquered both the Sindh and the Punjab regions along the Indus river. The conquest of Sindh and Punjab, in modern day Pakistan, although costly, were major gains for the Umayyad Caliphate. However, SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

further gains were halted by Hindu Kingdoms in India in the battle of Rajasthan. The Arabs tried to invade India but they were defeated by the north Indian king Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty and by the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty in the early 8th century. After this the Arab chroniclers admit that the Caliph Mahdi, “gave up the project of conquering any part of India'.”  Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

During the later period of its existence and particularly from 1031 AD under the Ta'ifa system of Islamic Emirates (Princedoms) in the southern half of Iberia, the Emirate/Sultanate of Granada maintained its independence largely due to the payment of Tributes to the northern Christian Kingdoms which began to gradually expand south at its expense from 1031. HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard

SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard

SONY VAIO VGN-AW15G Laptop Keyboard