Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan (U.S. pronunciation:  i/ʊz.ˈbɛk.ɪ.ˌstæn/, U.K. pronunciation:  i/ʊz.ˌbɛk.ɪ.ˈstɑːn/), officially theRepublic of Uzbekistan (Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi, Ўзбекистон Республикаси) is the onlydoubly landlocked country in Central Asia and one of only two such countries worldwide. It shares borders withKazakhstan to the west and to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east, and Afghanistan and Turkmenistan to the south. Before 1991, it was part of the Soviet Union. TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

Once part of the Persian Samanid and later Timurid empires, the region was conquered in the early 16th century by nomads who spoke an Eastern Turkic language. Most of Uzbekistan’s population today belong to the Uzbek ethnic groupand speak the Uzbek language, one of the family of Turkic languages. TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

Uzbekistan was incorporated into the Russian Empire in the 19th century, and in 1924 became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, known as the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR). HP AESP7U00110 Laptop Keyboard

It became independent on 31 August 1991 (officially, from the following day).

Uzbekistan's economy relies mainly on commodity production, including cotton, gold, uranium, and natural gas. Despite the declared objective of transition to a market economy, Uzbekistan continues to maintain economic controls, which deter foreign investment and imports and benefit domestic 'import substitution'. HP G72-b67CA Laptop Keyboard

The policy of a gradual, strictly controlled transition to the market economy has nevertheless produced beneficial results in the form of economic recovery after 1995. DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

 [5]

Uzbekistan has an area of 447,400 square kilometres (172,700 sq mi). It is the 56th largest country in the world by area and the 42nd by population.[6] Among theCIS countries, it is the 5th largest by area and the 3rd largest by population.[7] SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

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Uzbekistan lies between latitudes 37° and 46° N, and longitudes 56° and 74° E. It stretches 1,425 kilometres (885 mi) from west to east and 930 kilometres (580 mi) from north to south. Bordering Kazakhstan and the Aral Sea to the north and northwest, Turkmenistan to the southwest, Tajikistan to the southeast, HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard

andKyrgyzstan to the northeast, Uzbekistan is one of the largest Central Asian states and the only Central Asian state to border all the other four. Uzbekistan also shares a short border (less than 150 km or 93 mi) with Afghanistan to the south. SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard

Uzbekistan is a dry, landlocked country. It is one of two doubly landlockedcountries in the world — that is, a country completely surrounded by landlocked countries — the other beingLiechtenstein. In addition, due to its location within a series of endorheic basins, none of its rivers lead to the sea. Less than 10% of its territory is intensively cultivated irrigated land in river valleys and oases. SONY VAIO VGN-AW15G Laptop Keyboard

The rest is vast desert (Kyzyl Kum) and mountains.

The highest point in Uzbekistan is the Khazret Sultan, at 4,643 metres (15,233 ft) above sea level, in the southern part of the Gissar Range in Surkhandarya Province, on the border with Tajikistan, just northwest of Dushanbe(formerly called Peak of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party).[7] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

The climate in the Republic of Uzbekistan is continental, with little precipitation expected annually (100–200 millimeters, or 3.9–7.9 inches). The average summer high temperature tends to be 40 °C (104 °F), while the average winter low temperature is around −23 °C (−9 °F).[8]

Major cities include Andijan, HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

Bukhara, Samarkand, Namangan and the capital Tashkent.

Decades of questionable Soviet policies in pursuit of greater cotton production have resulted in a catastrophic scenario. The agricultural industry appears to be the main contributor to the pollution and devastation of the air and water in the country.[9] HP 492991-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Aral Sea used to be the fourth-largest inland sea on Earth, acting as an influencing factor in the air moisture and arid land use.[10] Since the 1960s, the decade when the misuse of the Aral Sea water began, it has shrunk to less than 50% of its former area and decreased in volume threefold. SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

Reliable or even approximate data have not been collected, stored or provided by any organization or official agency. Much of the water was and continues to be used for the irrigation of cotton fields, a crop requiring a large amount of water to grow.[11] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

The question of who is responsible for the crisis remains open – the Soviet scientists and politicians who directed the distribution of water during the 1960s, or the post-Soviet politicians who did not allocate sufficient funding for the building of dams and irrigation systems.[citation needed]. DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

Due to the Aral Sea problem, high salinity and contamination of the soil with heavy elements are especially widespread in Karakalpakstan, the region of Uzbekistan adjacent to the Aral Sea. The bulk of the nation's water resources is used for farming, which accounts for nearly 84% of the water usage and contributes to high soil salinity. Heavy use of pesticides and fertilizers for cotton growing further aggravates soil pollution.[8] ACER Aspire 4743 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The first people known to inhabit the Central Asian region of modern-day Uzbekistan were Iranian nomads who arrived from the northern grasslands of what is now Kazakhstan sometime in the first millennium BC. These nomads, who spoke Iranian dialects, settled in Central Asia and began to build an extensive irrigation system along the rivers of the region. At this time, cities such as Bukhoro (Bukhara), IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Samarqand (Samarkand) and Chash (Tashkent) began to appear as centers of emerging government and high culture. By the 5th century BC, the Bactrian, Soghdian, and Tokharian states dominated and ruled over the region. HP Pavilion DV4305US laptop keyboard

As China began to develop its silk trade with the West, Iranian cities took advantage of this commerce by becoming centres of trade. Using an extensive network of cities and rural settlements in the province of Mouwaurannahr (a name given the region after the Arab conquest) in Uzbekistan, and further east in what is today China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, TOSHIBA Satellite U205 laptop keyboard

the Soghdian intermediaries became the wealthiest of these Iranian merchants. Because of this trade on what became known as theSilk Route, Bukhoro and Samarqand eventually became extremely wealthy cities, and at the times Mawarannahr was the only large and one of the most influential and powerful Persian provinces of antiquity.[12] HP AETT3U00010 laptop keyboard

In the 8th century Transoxiana (territory between the Amudarya and Syrdarya rivers) was conquered by Arabs (Ali ibn Sattor), which inherited the region with the Early Renaissance. Many notable scientists have lived and contributed during the Islamic Golden Age. Among the achievements of the scholars during this period were the development of trigonometry into its modern form (simplifying its practical application to calculate the phases of the moon), Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

advances in optics, in astronomy, as well as in poetry, philosophy, art, calligraphy and many other, which have set the foundations for a Muslim Renaissance.

In the 9th – 10th centuries, Transoxiana was included into the Samanid State. Later, Transoxiana saw the incursion of the Turkic-ruled Karakhanids, as well as the Seljuks (Sultan Sanjar) and Kara-Khitans.[13] FUJITSU Lifebook P7120D laptop keyboard

The Mongol conquest under Genghis Khan during the 13th century would bring about a change to the region. The conquest and characteristic expansion of the Mongols led to the displacement of some of the Iranian-speaking people of the region, their culture and heritage being superseded by that of the Mongolian-Turkic peoples who came thereafter.

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Despite the potential for serious fragmentation, Mongol law of the Mongol Empire maintained orderly succession for several more generations, and control of most of Mawarannahr stayed in the hands of direct descendants of Chagatai Khan, the second son of Genghis Khan. Orderly succession, prosperity, TOSHIBA KFRSBA064A laptop keyboard

and internal peace prevailed in the Chaghatai lands, and the Mongol Empire as a whole remained strong and united kingdom. (Ulus Batiy, Sattarkhan)[14]

In the early 14th century, however, as the empire began to break up into its constituent parts, the Chaghatai territory also was disrupted as the princes of various tribal groups competed for influence. One tribal chieftain, Timur (Tamerlane),[15SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

]emerged from these struggles in the 1380s as the dominant force in Mawarannahr. Although he was not a descendant of Chinggis, Timur became the de facto ruler of Mawarannahr and proceeded to conquer all of western Central Asia, Iran, Asia Minor, and the southern steppe region north of the Aral Sea. He also invaded Russia, Turkey, Iraq, and placed under his command Iran andIndia, before dying during an invasion of China in 1405.[14] SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard

Timur initiated the last flowering of Mawarannahr by gathering in his capital, Samarqand, numerous artisans and scholars from the vast lands he had conquered. By supporting such people, Timur imbued his empire with a very rich Perso-Islamic culture. During Amir Timur's reign and the reigns of his immediate descendants, a wide range of religious and palatial construction masterpieces were undertaken in Samarqand and other population centres.[16] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Timur also initiated exchange of medical thoughts and patronized physicians, scientists and artists from the neighboring countries like India;[17] his grandson Ulugh Beg was one of the world's first great astronomers. It was during the Timurid dynasty that Turkic, in the form of the Chaghataidialect, became a literary language in its own right in Mawarannahr, although the Timurids were Persianate in nature. HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

The greatest Chaghataid writer, Ali-Shir Nava'i, was active in the city of Herat, now in northwestern Afghanistan, in the second half of the 15th century.[14]

The Timurid state quickly broke into two halves after the death of Timur. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The chronic internal fighting of the Timurids attracted the attention of the Uzbek nomadic tribes living to the north of the Aral Sea. In 1501 the Uzbek forces began a wholesale invasion of Mawarannahr.[14] The slave trade in the Khanate of Bukhara became prominent and was firmly established.[18] Estimates from 1821 suggest that between 25,000 and 60,000 Persian slaves were working only in Bukhara at the time.[19] HP Probook 4510S Laptop Keyboard

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In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand and spread into Central Asia. By 1911 Russians living in Uzbekistan numbered 210,306.[20] The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, a second, less intensive phase followed. At the start of the 19th century, there were some 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) separating British India and the outlying regions of Tsarist Russia. Much of the land in between was unmapped. SONY VAIO VGN-NW15G/T Laptop Keyboard

By the beginning of 1920, Central Asia was firmly in the hands of Russia and, despite some early resistance to theBolsheviks, Uzbekistan and the rest of the Central Asia became a part of the Soviet Union. On October 27, 1924 the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was created. From 1941 to 1945, during World War II, TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

1,433,230 people from Uzbekistan fought in theRed Army against Nazi Germany. (A number also fought on the German side.) 263,005 Uzbek soldiers died in the battlefields of the Eastern Front, 132,670 went missing in action.[21] On August 31, 1991, Uzbekistan declared independence, proclaiming September 1 as the National Independence Day.  HP Pavilion DV6-1030us Laptop Keyboard

The first elections of the Oliy Majlis (Parliament) were held under a resolution adopted by the 16th Supreme Soviet in 1994. In that year, the Supreme Soviet was replaced by the Oliy Majlis. Since then Uzbekistan has held presidential and parliamentarian elections on regular basis but no real opposition candidates or parties are able to participate.[citation needed]  ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The third elections for the bicameral 150-member Oliy Majlis — the Legislative Chamber and the 100-member Senate — for five-year terms, were held on December 27, 2009, after the second elections that were held in December 2004 – 2005. The Oliy Majlis was unicameral up to 2004. Its strength increased from 69 deputies (members) in 1994 to 120 in 2004–05 and presently to 150. DELL Inspiron M5030 Laptop Keyboard

The executive holds a great deal of power, and the legislature has little power to shape laws. Under terms of a December 27, 1995 referendum, Islam Karimov's first term was extended. Another national referendum was held January 27, 2002 to extend the Constitutional Presidential term from 5 years to 7 years. DELL PF236 Laptop Keyboard

The referendum passed, and Islam Karimov's term was extended by an act of parliament to December 2007. Most international observers refused to participate in the process and did not recognize the results, dismissing them as not meeting basic standards. The 2002 referendum also included a plan for a bicameral parliament, DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

consisting of a lower house (the Oliy Majlis) and an upper house (Senate). Members of the lower house are to be "full time" legislators. Elections for the new bicameral parliament took place on December 26. There is currently a political situation emerging in Uzbekistan around Islam Karimov and the selection of Akbar Abdullaev as successor.[citation needed] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The OSCE limited observation mission concluded that the elections fell significantly short of OSCE commitments and other international standards for democratic elections. Several political parties have been formed with government approval. Similarly, although multiple media outlets (radio, TV, newspaper) have been established, these either remain under government control or rarely broach political topics. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Independent political parties were allowed to organise, recruit members and hold conventions and press conferences, but they have been denied registration under restrictive registration procedures. HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan asserts that "democracy in the Republic of Uzbekistan shall be based upon common human principles, according to which the highest value shall be the human being, his life, freedom, honour, dignity and other inalienable rights."

The official position is summarised in a memorandum "The measures taken by the government of the Republic of Uzbekistan in the field of providing and encouraging human rights"[22] and amounts to the following: ACER Aspire 4743 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

the government does everything that is in its power to protect and to guarantee the human rights of Uzbekistan's citizens. Uzbekistan continuously improves its laws and institutions in order to create a more humane society. Over 300 laws regulating the rights and basic freedoms of the people have been passed by the parliament. IBM 42T4026 laptop keyboard

For instance, an office of Ombudsman was established in 1996.[23] On August 2, 2005, President Islam Karimov signed a decree that abolished capital punishment in Uzbekistan on January 1, 2008. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

However, non-governmental human rights watchdogs, such as IHF, Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, as well as United States Department of State andCouncil of the European Union define Uzbekistan as "an authoritarian state with limited civil rights"[24] and express profound concern about "wide-scale violation of virtually all basic human rights".[25] According to the reports, SONY VAIO VGN-AW21M laptop keyboard

the most widespread violations are torture, arbitrary arrests, and various restrictions of freedoms: of religion, of speech and press, of free association and assembly. It has also been reported that forced sterilization of rural Uzbeki women has been sanctioned by the government.[26] Lenovo 63Y0047 laptop keyboard

The reports maintain that the violations are most often committed against members of religious organizations, independent journalists, human rights activists and political activists, including members of the banned opposition parties. Compaq Presario CQ71-310SB laptop keyboard

The 2005 civil unrest in Uzbekistan, which resulted in several hundred people being killed, is viewed by many as a landmark event in the history of human rights abuse in Uzbekistan.[27][28][29HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard

] A concern has been expressed and a request for an independent investigation of the events has been made by the United States, European Union, the United Nations, the OSCE Chairman-in-Office and the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. The government of Uzbekistan is accused of unlawful termination of human life and of denying its citizens freedom of assembly and freedom of expression. HP G71-329WM laptop keyboard

The government vehemently rebuffs the accusations, maintaining that it merely conducted an anti-terrorist operation, exercising only necessary force.[30] In addition, some officials claim that "an information war on Uzbekistan has been declared" and the human rights violations in Andijan are invented by the enemies of Uzbekistan as a convenient pretext for intervention in the country's internal affairs.[31] HP Pavilion dv5-1215ee laptop keyboard

Uzbekistan also does not allow Tajiks to teach their youth in their native language. There have been cases of destroying Tajiki (Persian-language) literary works.[32]

Uzbekistan has the fourth largest gold deposits in the world. The country mines 80 tons of gold annually, seventh in the world. Uzbekistan's copper deposits rank tenth in the world and its uranium deposits twelfth. TOSHIBA G83c00018610 laptop keyboard

The country's uranium production ranks seventh globally.[34][35][36] The Uzbek national gas company, Uzbekneftgas, ranks 11th in the world in natural gas production with an annual output of 60 to 70 billion cubic meters. The country has significant untapped reserves of oil and gas: there are 194 deposits of hydrocarbons in Uzbekistan, including 98 condensate and natural gas deposits and 96 gas condensate deposits. ASUS F81 laptop keyboard

The largest corporations involved in Uzbekistan's energy sector are the China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC),Petronas, the Korea National Oil Corporation, Gazprom, Lukoil, and Uzbekneftgas. SONY Vaio VGN-FW100 laptop keyboard

Along with many Commonwealth of Independent States or CIS economies, Uzbekistan's economy declined during the first years of transition and then recovered after 1995, as the cumulative effect of policy reforms began to be felt. It has shown robust growth, rising by 4% per year between 1998 and 2003 and accelerating thereafter to 7%–8% per year. According to IMF estimates,[37] HP Pavilion dv3-2320es Laptop Keyboard

the GDP in 2008 will be almost double its value in 1995 (in constant prices). Since 2003 annual inflation rates averaged less than 10%.

Uzbekistan has a very low GNI per capita (US$610 in current dollars in 2006, giving a PPP equivalent of US$2,250).[38Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard

] By GNI per capita in PPP equivalents Uzbekistan ranks 169 among 209 countries; among the 12 CIS countries, only Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan had lower GNI per capita in 2006. Economic production is concentrated in commodities. In 2011, Uzbekistan was the world's seventh-largest producer and fifth-largest exporter of cotton[39] as well as the seventh largest world producer of gold. It is also a regionally significant producer of natural gas, coal, copper, oil, silver and uranium.[40] TOSHIBA PK130260100 Laptop Keyboard

Agriculture employs 28% of Uzbekistan's labour force and contributes 24% of its GDP (2006 data).[7] While official unemployment is very low, underemployment – especially in rural areas – is estimated to be at least 20%.[1] Still, at cotton-harvest time, all students and teachers are mobilized as unpaid labour to help in the fields.[41] The use of child labour in Uzbekistan has led several companies, including Tesco,[42] C&A,[43] Marks & Spencer, Gap, and H&M, to boycott Uzbek cotton.[44]  Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

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Facing a multitude of economic challenges upon acquiring independence, the government adopted an evolutionary reform strategy, with an emphasis on state control, reduction of imports and self-sufficiency in energy. Since 1994, the state-controlled media have repeatedly proclaimed the success of this "Uzbekistan Economic Model"[45] DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

and suggested that it is a unique example of a smooth transition to the market economy while avoiding shock, pauperism and stagnation.

The gradualist reform strategy has involved postponing significant macroeconomic and structural reforms. The state in the hands of the bureaucracy has remained a dominant influence in the economy. Corruption permeates the society and grows more rampant over time: Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Uzbekistan's 2005 Corruption Perception Index was 137 out of 159 countries, whereas in 2007 Uzbekistan was 175th out of 179 countries. A February 2006 report on the country by the International Crisis Group suggests that revenues earned from key exports, especially cotton, gold, corn and increasingly gas, are distributed among a very small circle of the ruling elite, with little or no benefit for the populace at large.[46] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, "the government is hostile to allowing the development of an independent private sector, over which it would have no control".[47] Thus, the middle class is marginalised economically and, consequently, politically. ACER 9J.N9482.11B Laptop Keyboard

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The economic policies have repelled foreign investment, which is the lowest per capita in the CIS.[48] For years, the largest barrier to foreign companies entering the Uzbekistan market has been the difficulty of converting currency. In 2003, the government accepted the obligations of Article VIII under the International Monetary Fund (IMF).[49] providing for full currency convertibility. However, strict currency controls and the tightening of borders have lessened the effect of this measure. HP 576835-001 Laptop Keyboard

Uzbekistan experienced rampant inflation of around 1000% per year immediately after independence (1992–1994). Stabilisation efforts implemented with guidance from the IMF[50] paid off. The inflation rates were brought down to 50% in 1997 and then to 22% in 2002. Since 2003 annual inflation rates averaged less than 10%.[37] TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7340 Laptop Keyboard

Tight economic policies in 2004 resulted in a drastic reduction of inflation to 3.8% (although alternative estimates based on the price of a true market basket, put it at 15%).[51] The inflation rates moved up to 6.9% in 2006 and 7.6% in 2007 but have remained in the single-digit range.[52]

The government of Uzbekistan restricts foreign imports in many ways, including high import duties. HP 608558-001 Laptop Keyboard

Excise taxes are applied in a highly discriminatory manner to protect locally produced goods. Official tariffs are combined with unofficial, discriminatory charges resulting in total charges amounting to as much as 100 to 150% of the actual value of the product, making imported products virtually unaffordable.[53] SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

Import substitution is an officially declared policy and the government proudly reports a reduction by a factor of two in the volume of consumer goods imported. A number of CIS countries are officially exempt from Uzbekistan import duties. HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Republican Stock Exchange (RSE) opened in 1994. The stocks of all Uzbek joint stock companies (around 1250) are traded on RSE. The number of listed companies as of January 2013 exceeds 110. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Securities market volume reached 2 trillion in 2012, and the number is rapidly growing due to the rising interest by companies of attracting necessary resources through the capital market. According to Central Depository as of January 2013 par value of outstanding shares of Uzbek emitters exceeded 9 trillion. DELL Inspiron 500m Laptop Keyboard

Uzbekistan's external position has been strong since 2003. Thanks in part to the recovery of world market prices of gold and cotton (the country's key export commodities), expanded natural gas and some manufacturing exports, and increasing labour migrant transfers, the current account turned into a large surplus (between 9% and 11% of GDP from 2003 to 2005) and foreign exchange reserves, including gold, more than doubled to around US$3 billion.[citation needed]

Foreign exchange reserves amounted in 2010 to 13 billion US$.[54] HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

Uzbekistan is considered one of the fastest growing economies in the world (top 26) in the next decades according to a global bank HSBC survey [55]

Uzbekistan is Central Asia's most populous country. Its 29,559,100 population[2] comprise nearly half the region's total population. ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard

The population of Uzbekistan is very young: 34.1% of its people are younger than 14 (2008 estimate).[1] According to official sources, Uzbeks comprise a majority (80%) of the total population. Other ethnic groups include Russians 5.5%, Tajiks 5% (official estimate and disputed), Kazakhs 3%, Karakalpaks 2.5% and Tatars 1.5% (1996 estimates).[1] SONY 148024421 Laptop Keyboard

There is some controversy about the percentage of the Tajik population. While official state numbers from Uzbekistan put the number at 5%, the number is said to be an understatement and some Western scholars put the number up to 20%–30%.SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

According to recent genetic genealogy testing from a University of Oxford study, the genetic admixture of the Uzbeks clusters somewhere between the Mongols and the Iranian peoples.[60]

Uzbekistan has an ethnic Korean population that was forcibly relocated to the region by Stalin f rom the Soviet Far East in 1937–1938. HP Envy 17-2077ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

There are also small groups of Armenians in Uzbekistan, mostly in Tashkent and Samarkand. The nation is 88% Muslim (mostly Sunni, with a 5% Shi'a minority), 9% Eastern Orthodox and 3% other faiths. The U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2004 reports that 0.2% of the population are Buddhist (these being ethnic Koreans). The Bukharan Jews have lived in Central Asia, HP Envy 17-1190nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

mostly in Uzbekistan, for thousands of years. There were 94,900 Jews in Uzbekistan in 1989[61] (about 0.5% of the population according to the 1989 census), but now, since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, most Central Asian Jews left the region for the United States, Germany, or Israel. Fewer than 5,000 Jews remained in Uzbekistan in 2007.[62] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Russians in Uzbekistan represent 5.5% of the total population. During the Soviet period, Russians and Ukrainians constituted more than half the population of Tashkent.[63] The country counted nearly 1.5 million Russians, 12.5% of the population, in the 1970 census.[64] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, significant emigration of ethnic Russians has taken place, mostly for economic reasons.[65] TOSHIBA Satellite L505D-ES5025 laptop keyboard

In the 1940s, the Crimean Tatars, along with the Germans, Chechens, Greeks, Turks, Kurds and many other nationalities weredeported to Central Asia.[66] Approximately 100,000 Crimean Tatars continue to live in Uzbekistan.[67] The number of Greeks in Tashkent has decreased from 35,000 in 1974 to about 12,000 today.[68] The majority of Meskhetian Turks left the country after the pogroms in the Fergana valley in June 1989.[69] HP G72-a10SA laptop keyboard

At least 10% of Uzbekistan's labour force works abroad (mostly in Russia and Kazakhstan).[70]

Uzbekistan has a 99.3% literacy rate among adults older than 15 (2003 estimate),[1] which is attributable to the free and universal education system of the Soviet Union.

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Islam is by far the dominant religion in Uzbekistan, as Muslims constitute 90% of the population while 5% of the population follow Russian Orthodox Christianity, and 5% of the population follow other religion according to a 2009 US State Departmentrelease.[71] However, a 2009 Pew Research Center report stated that Uzbekistan's population is 96.3% Muslim.[72] An estimated 93,000 Jews were once present in the country.[citation needed] Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard

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Despite its predominance, the practice of Islam is far from monolithic. Many versions of the faith have been practiced in Uzbekistan. The conflict of Islamic tradition with various agendas of reform or secularization throughout the 20th century has left the outside world with a confused notion of Islamic practices in Central Asia.[citation needed]  Lenovo 63Y0047 laptop keyboard

The end of Soviet power in Uzbekistan did not bring an upsurge of fundamentalism, as many had predicted, but rather a gradual reacquaintance with the precepts of the faith.

Although constitutionally maintaining rights to freedom of religion, Uzbekistan maintains a ban on all religious activities not approved by that state, with particularly harsh treatment of Protestant Christians being commonplace. See: TOSHIBA PK130260100 laptop keyboard

Human Rights; Freedom of Religion, Uzbekistan

The Uzbek language is the only official state language,[73] and since 1992 is officially written in the Latin alphabet. TheTajik language is widespread in the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand because of their relatively large population of ethnicTajiks.[57] It is also found in large pockets in Kasan, Namangan, HP Mini 311-1000NR laptop keyboard

Khokand and Kanibadam in Fergana valley, as well as in Ahangaran, Baghistan in the middle Syr Darya distrist, and finally in, Shahri Sabz, Kitab and the river valleys of Kafiringanand Chaganian rivers, forming altogether, approximately 25-30% of the population of UzbekistanSONY VAIO VGN-NW23GF laptop keyboard

Russian is an important language for interethnic communication, especially in the cities, including much day-to-day technical, scientific, governmental and business use. Russian is the main language of over 14% of the population and is spoken as a second language by many more. The use of Russian in remote rural areas has always been limited, and today most school children have no proficiency in Russian even in urban centres. However, SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard

it was reported in 2003 that over half of the population could speak and understand Russian, and a renewed close political relationship between Russia and Uzbekistan has meant that official discouragement of Russian has dropped off sharply.[74] TOSHIBA Satellite M40x Series laptop keyboard

Before 1920s, the written language of Uzbeks was called Turki (known to Western scholars as Chagatay) and used the Nastaʿlīqscript. In 1926, the Latin alphabet was introduced and went through several revisions in throughout the 1930s. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

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Finally, in 1940, Cyrillic alphabet was abruptly introduced by Soviet authorities and was used until the fall of Soviet Union. In 1993, Uzbekistan shifted back to the Latin script, which was modified in 1996 and is being taught in schools since 2005.[75] Nevertheless, many signs and notices (including official government boards in the streets) are still written in Uzbek Cyrillic script[citation needed]. TOSHIBA Satellite A110 Series Laptop Keyboard

Tashkent, the nation's capital and largest city, has a three-line rapid transit system built in 1977, and expanded in 2001 after ten years' independence from the Soviet Union. Uzbekistan is currently the only country in Central Asia with a subway system, which is promoted as one of the cleanest systems in the former Soviet Union.[78] The stations are exceedingly ornate. For example, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

the station Metro Kosmonavtov built in 1984 is decorated using a space travel theme to recognise the achievements of mankind in space exploration and to commemorate the role of Vladimir Dzhanibekov, the Soviet cosmonaut of Uzbek origin. A statue of Vladimir Dzhanibekov stands near one of the station's entrances. HP Pavilion dv6-3035sl Laptop Keyboard

There are government-operated trams and buses running across the city. There are also many taxis, both registered and unregistered. Uzbekistan has car-producing plants which produce modern cars. The car production is supported by the government and the Korean auto company Daewoo. HP Pavilion DV7-4053 Laptop Keyboard

The Uzbek government acquired a 50% stake in Daewoo in 2005[citation needed] for an undisclosed sum, and in May 2007 UzDaewooAuto, the car maker, signed a strategic agreement with General Motors-Daewoo Auto and Technology (GMDAT, see: GM Uzbekistan also).[79] The government also bought a stake in Turkey's Koc in SamKochAvto, a producer of small buses and lorries. Afterwards, it signed an agreement with Isuzu Motors of Japan to produce Isuzu buses and lorries.[80] SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard

Train links connect many towns within Uzbekistan, as well as neighboring former republics of the Soviet Union. Moreover, after independence two fast-running train systems were established. Uzbekistan has launched first high-speed railway in Central Asia in September 2011 between Tashkent and Samarqand. The new high-speed electric train Talgo 250, calledAfrosiyob[81], was manufactured by Patentes Talgo S.L. (Spain) and carried out its first trip from Tashkent to Samarkand on August 26, 2011.[82] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

There is also a large airplane plant that was built during the Soviet era – Tashkent Chkalov Aviation Manufacturing Plant or ТАПОиЧ in Russian. The plant originated during World War II, when production facilities were evacuated south and east to avoid capture by advancing Nazi forces. Until the late 1980s, SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard

the plant was one of the leading airplane production centers in the USSR, but with dissolution of the Soviet Union its manufacturing equipment became outdated, and most of the workers were laid off. Now it produces only a few planes a year, but with interest from Russian companies growing in it, there are rumours of production-enhancement plans.

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now a subsidiary of the Nordic/Baltic telecommunication company TeliaSonera AB).[77]

As of July 1, 2007, the estimated number of internet users was 1.8 million, according to UzACI.

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The military structure is largely inherited from the Turkestan Military District of the Soviet Army, although it is going through a reform to be based mainly on motorized infantry with some light and special forces[citation needed]. The Uzbek Armed Forces' equipment is not modern, and training, while improving, is neither uniform nor adequate for its new mission of territorial security[citation needed]. Lenovo 0A62075 Laptop Keyboard

The government has accepted the arms control obligations of the former Soviet Union, acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (as a non-nuclear state), and supported an active program by the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) in western Uzbekistan (Nukus and Vozrozhdeniye Island). The Government of Uzbekistan spends about 3.7% of GDP on the military but has received a growing infusion of Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and other security assistance funds since 1998. SONY VAIO VGN-CR210EL Laptop Keyboard

Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the U.S., Uzbekistan approved the U.S. Central Command's request for access to an air base, the Karshi-Khanabad airfield, in southern Uzbekistan. However, Uzbekistan demanded that the U.S. withdraw from the airbases after the Andijan massacre and the U.S. reaction to this massacre. The last US troops left Uzbekistan in November 2005. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

On 23 June 2006, Uzbekistan became a full participant in the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), but informed the CSTO to suspend its membership in June 2012.[83]

Uzbekistan joined the Commonwealth of Independent States in December 1991. However, it is opposed to reintegration and withdrew from the CIS collective security arrangement in 1999. HP 608558-001 Laptop Keyboard

Since that time, Uzbekistan has participated in the CIS peacekeeping force in Tajikistan and in UN-organized groups to help resolve the Tajikistan and Afghanistan conflicts, both of which it sees as posing threats to its own stability. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Previously close to Washington (which gave Uzbekistan half a billion dollars in aid in 2004, about a quarter of its military budget), the government of Uzbekistan has recently restricted American military use of the airbase at Karshi-Khanabad for air operations in neighboring Afghanistan.[84] Uzbekistan was an active supporter of U.S. efforts against worldwide terrorism and joined the coalitions that have dealt with both Afghanistan and Iraq. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The relationship between Uzbekistan and the United States began to deteriorate after the so-called "colour revolutions" inGeorgia and Ukraine (and to a lesser extent Kyrgyzstan). When the U.S. joined in a call for an independent international investigation of the bloody events at Andijan, the relationship further declined, and President Islam Karimov changed the political alignment of the country to bring it closer to Russia and China, countries which chose not to criticise Uzbekistan's leaders for their alleged human rights violations. TOSHIBA Satellite Pro C650-EZ1515D laptop keyboard

In late July 2005, the government of Uzbekistan ordered the United States to vacate an air base in Karshi-Kanabad (near Uzbekistan's border with Afghanistan) within 180 days. Karimov had offered use of the base to the U.S. shortly after 9/11. It is also believed by some Uzbeks that the protests in Andijan were brought about by the U.K. and U.S. influences in the area of Andijan. This is another reason for the hostility between Uzbekistan and the West. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

Uzbekistan is a member of the United Nations (UN) (since March 2, 1992), the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC),Partnership for Peace (PfP), and the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). It belongs to theOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the Economic Cooperation Organisation (ECO) (comprising the five Central Asian countries, Azerbaijan, SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard

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Turkey,Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan). In 1999, Uzbekistan joined the GUAM alliance (Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova), which was formed in 1997 (making it GUUAM), but pulled out of the organization in 2005. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

Uzbekistan is also a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) and hosts the SCO’s Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) in Tashkent. SONY VAIO VGN-AR230G laptop keyboard

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The CACO consists of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. It is a founding member of, and remains involved in, the Central Asian Union, formed with Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and joined in March 1998 by Tajikistan.

In September 2006, UNESCO presented Islam Karimov an award for Uzbekistan's preservation of its rich culture and traditions. Despite criticism, this seems to be a sign of improving relationships between Uzbekistan and the West. DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

The month of October 2006 also saw a decrease in the isolation of Uzbekistan from the West. The EU announced that it was planning to send a delegation to Uzbekistan to talk about human rights and liberties, after a long period of hostile relations between the two. Although it is equivocal about whether the official or unofficial version of the Andijan Massacre is true, the EU is evidently willing to ease its economic sanctions against Uzbekistan. DELL Inspiron 1526 Laptop Keyboard

Nevertheless, it is generally assumed among Uzbekistan's population that the government will stand firm in maintaining its close ties with the Russian Federation and in its theory that the 2004–2005 protests in Uzbekistan were promoted by the USA and UK. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Uzbekistan has a wide mix of ethnic groups and cultures, with the Uzbek being the majority group. In 1995 about 71% of Uzbekistan's population was Uzbek. The chief minority groups were Russians (8%), Tajiks (5–30%),[56][57][58][85] Kazaks (4%), Tatars(2.5%) and Karakalpaks (2%). It is said, however, that the number of non-Uzbek people living in Uzbekistan is decreasing as Russians and other minority groups slowly leave and Uzbeks return from other parts of the former Soviet Union. TOSHIBA Satellite A305 Laptop Keyboard

When Uzbekistan gained independence in 1991, there was concern that Muslim fundamentalismwould spread across the region. The expectation was that a country long denied freedom of religious practice would undergo a very rapid increase in the expression of its dominant faith. As of 1994, over half of Uzbekistan's population was said to be Muslim, though in an official survey few of that number had any real knowledge of the religion or knew how to practice it. However, Islamic observance is increasing in the region. HP Pavilion dm3-1020CA Laptop Keyboard

Uzbekistan has a high literacy rate, with about 99.3% of adults above the age of 15 being able to read and write. However with only 76% of the under-15 population currently enrolled in education (and only 20% of the 3-6 year olds attending pre-school), this figure may drop in the future. Students attend school Monday through Saturday during the school year,with official education concluding at the end of the 9th grade. Post secondary school, DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

students routinely attend trade or technical colleges. There are two international schools operating in Uzbekistan, both in Tashkent: The British School catering for elementary students only, and Tashkent International School, a K-12 international curriculum school.

Uzbekistan has encountered severe budget shortfalls in its education program. The education law of 1992 began the process of theoretical reform, HP G71-449WM Laptop Keyboard

but the physical base has deteriorated and curriculum revision has been slow. A large contributor to this decline is the low level of wages received by teachers and the lack of spending on infrastructure, buildings and resources on behalf of the government. Corruption within the education system is also rampant, with students from wealthier families routinely bribing teachers and school executives to achieve high grades without attending school, or undertaking official examinations.[86] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Uzbekistan's universities create almost 600,000 graduates annually, though the general standard of university graduates, and the overall level of education within the tertiary system is low. Westminster University maintains a campus in Tashkent offering English language courses across several disciplines. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Central Asian classical music is called Shashmaqam, which arose in Bukhara in the late 16th century when that city was a regional capital. Shashmaqam is closely related to Azerbaijani Mugam and Uyghur muqam. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

 The name, which translates as six maqams refers to the structure of the music, which contains six sections in six different Musical modes, similar to classicalPersian traditional music. Interludes of spoken Sufi poetry interrupt the music, typically beginning at a lower register and gradually ascending to a climax before calming back down to the beginning tone. HP Pavilion dv3-2310er Laptop Keyboard

Endurance of listening and continual audiences that attend events, such as Bazms or Weddings, is what makes the Folk-pop style of music so popular. The classical music in Uzbekistan is very different than that of the pop music. Mostly men listen to Solo or Duo shows during a morning or evening meeting amongst men. TOSHIBA 9J.N7482.901 Laptop Keyboard

Shash maqam, which is the main component of the classical genre of music. The large support of the musicians from high class families, which meant the Patronage was to be paid to the Shash maqam above all things. Poetry is where some of the music is drawn from. In some instances of the music, Compaq Presario CQ56-103EG laptop keyboard

the 2 languages are even mixed in the same song. In the 1950s, the folk music became less popular, and the genre was barred from the radio stations. They did not completely dispel the music all together, although the name changed to Feudal music. Although banned, the folk musical groups continued to play their music in their own ways and spread it individually as well. Many say that it was the most liberated musical experience in their lives.[citation needed] HP Pavilion dv5-1080el laptop keyboard

Uzbek Cuisine is influenced by local agriculture, as in most nations. There is a great deal of grain farming in Uzbekistan, so breads and noodles are of importance and Uzbek cuisine has been characterized as noodle rich. Mutton is a popular variety of meat due to the abundance of sheep in the country and it is part of various Uzbek dishes. TOSHIBA Satellite P300-1FC laptop keyboard

Uzbekistan's signature dish is Palov (Plov or Osh), a main course typically made with rice, pieces of meat, and gratedcarrots and onions. Oshi Nahor, or morning Plov, is served in the early morning (between 6 am and 9 am) to large gatherings of guests, typically as part of an ongoing wedding celebration. Other notable national dishes include: Shurpa (Shurva orShorva), SONY VAIO VGN-FS415E laptop keyboard

a soup made of large pieces of fatty meat (usually mutton), and fresh vegetables; Norin and Langman, noodle-based dishes that may be served as a soup or a main course; Manti, Chuchvara, and Somsa, stuffed pockets of dough served as an appetizer or a main course; Dimlama (a meat and vegetable stew) and various Kebabs, usually served as a main course. HP Pavilion dv3-2320tx laptop keyboard

Green tea is the national hot beverage taken throughout the day; teahouses (Chaikhanas) are of cultural importance. The more usual black tea is preferred in Tashkent, both green and black teas are taken daily without milk or sugar. Tea always accompanies a meal, but it is also a drink of hospitality, automatically offered – green or black – to every guest. Ayran, a chilled yogurt drink, is popular in summer, but does not replace hot tea. HP Mini 110 laptop keyboard

The use of alcohol is less widespread than in the west, but wine is comparatively popular for a Muslim nation as Uzbekistan is largely secular. Uzbekistan has 14 wineries, the oldest and most famous being the Khovrenko Winery in Samarkand (est. 1927). The Samarkand Winery produces a range of dessert wines from local grape varieties: Gulyakandoz, Shirin, Aleatiko, and Kabernet likernoe (literally Cabernet dessert wine in Russian). Uzbek wines have received international awards and are exported to Russia and other countries.

Sport HP Compaq G50-123NR laptop keyboard

Uzbekistan is home to former racing cyclist Djamolidine Abdoujaparov. Abdoujaparov has won the points contest in the Tour de France three times, each time winning the coveted green jersey (the green jersey is second only to the yellow jersey).[87] Abdoujaparov was a specialist at winning stages in tours or one-day races when the bunch or peloton would finish together. He would often 'sprint' in the final kilometre and had a reputation as being dangerous in these bunch sprints as he would weave from side to side. This reputation earned him the nickname 'The Terror of Tashkent'. HP Pavilion DV6-6B00 laptop keyboard

Artur Taymazov won Uzbekistan's first wrestling medal at the 2000 Summer Olympic Games, as well as three gold medals at the 2004, 2008 Summer Olympic Games and2012 Summer Olympic Games in Men's 120 kg.

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He won the WBA champion title in 2007 after defeating Nikolai Valuev. Chagaev defended his title twice before losing it to Vladimir Klitschko in 2009.

Michael Kolganov, sprint canoer, was world champion and won an Olympic bronze in K-1 500-meter. Gymnast Alexander Shatilov won a world bronze as an artistic gymnast in floor exercise. HP Pavilion dv6-2146so laptop keyboard

Uzbekistan is the home of the International Kurash Association. Kurash is an internationalized and modernized form of the traditional Uzbek fighting art ofKurash.

Football is the most popular sport in Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan's premier football league is the Uzbek League, which features 14 teams since 2010, HP Pavilion dv6-2108sa laptop keyboard

before 16. The current champions (2011) are FC Bunyodkor, and the team with the most championships is FC Pakhtakor Tashkent with 8. The current Player of the Year (2011) isOdil Ahmedov. Uzbekistan's football clubs regularly participates in the AFC Champions League and the AFC Cup. Nasaf won AFC Cup in 2011, SAMSUNG R518 laptop keyboard

 which is the first international club cup for Uzbek football.

Before Uzbekistan's independence in 1991, the country used to be part of the Soviet Union football, rugby union, ice hockey, basketball, and handball national teams. After Uzbekistan got split up from the Soviet Union, Uzbekistan created its own football, rugby union, and futsal national teams. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Tennis is also a very popular sport in Uzbekistan, especially after Uzbekistan's independence in 1991. Uzbekistan also has its own Tennis Federation called the "UTF" (Uzbekistan Tennis Federation) that was created in 2002. Uzbekistan also hosts an International WTA tennis tournament called the "Tashkent Open", SONY Vaio PCG-K35 Laptop Keyboard

which is held in Uzbekistan's capital city. This tournament has been held since 1999, and is played on outdoor hard courts. The most notable active players from Uzbekistan are Denis Istomin and Akgul Amanmuradova.

Other popular sports in Uzbekistan include judo, team handball, baseball, taekwondo, basketball, and futsal. TOSHIBA NB200 Laptop Keyboard

In 1925, the borders of political units in Central Asia were changed along ethnic lines determined by Vladimir Lenin’s Commissar for Nationalities, Joseph Stalin. The Turkestan ASSR, the Bukharan People's Republic, and theKhorezm People's Republic were abolished and their territories were divided into eventually five separate Soviet Socialist Republics, one of which was the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR), SONY 148044221 Laptop Keyboard

created on 27 October 1924. The next year the Uzbek SSR became one of the republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union).

The Uzbek SSR included the Tajik ASSR until 1929, when the Tajik ASSR was upgraded to an equal status. FUJITSU Amilo Mini Ui 3520 Laptop Keyboard

In 1930, the Uzbek SSR capital was relocated from Samarkand to Tashkent. In 1936, the Uzbek SSR was enlarged with the addition of the Karakalpak ASSR taken from the Kazakh SSR in the last stages of the national delimitation in the Soviet Union. Further bits and pieces of territory were transferred several times between the Kazakh SSR and the Uzbek SSR after World War II.

In 1928, the collectivization of land into state farms was initiated, which lasted until the late 1930s. SONY AEGD1E00010 Laptop Keyboard

In 1937–38, during the Great Purge, a number of alleged nationalists were executed, including Faizullah Khojaev, the first prime minister.

During World War II, many industries were relocated to the Uzbek SSR from vulnerable locations in western regions of the USSR to keep them safe. Large numbers of Russians, Ukrainians and other nationalities accompanied the factories, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

altering the demographics of the republic. The demographics situation was further aggravated by Stalin’s relocation of some ethnic groups suspected of collaboration with the Axis powers from other parts of the USSR to the Uzbek SSR. This included large numbers of ethnic Koreans, Crimean Tatars, and Chechens. SAMSUNG N148 Laptop Keyboard

During the Soviet period, Islam became a focal point for the antireligious drives of Communist authorities. The government closed most mosques, and religious schools became anti-religious museums.[citation needed] On the positive side was the virtual elimination of illiteracy, even in rural areas. Only a small percentage of the population was literate before 1917; this percentage increased to nearly 100 percent under the Soviets.[citation needed] HP AEUT5U00010 Laptop Keyboard

Another major development, one with future catastrophic impact, was the drive initiated in the early 1960s to substantially increase cotton production in the republic. This drive led to overzealous irrigation withdrawals of irrigation water from the Amu Darya and the subsequent Aral Sea ecological disaster. HP AETT9U00010 Laptop Keyboard

The Communist Party was the only legal party in the Uzbek SSR until 1990. The first secretary, or head, of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan was consistently an Uzbek. Long-time leader of the Uzbek SSRwas Sharof Rashidov, head of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan from 1959 to 1983. Islam Karimov, leader of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan since 1989 and subsequently head of that party's reincarnation, the People's Democratic Party (PDP), became president of the Uzbek SSR in 1990. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard

On 1 September 1991, the Uzbek SSR was renamed Republic of Uzbekistan, formally remaining a part of the Soviet Union until 26 December 1991. With the final collapse of the Soviet Union, the Uzbek SSR became the independent nation of Uzbekistan. Karimov has been its President ever since. HP Mini 110-3001tu Laptop Keyboard

 [2][3]

Turkic languages are spoken as a native language by some 170 million people[4] and the total number of Turkic speakers, including second-language speakers, is over 200 million.[citation needed] The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish proper, spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans, the native speakers of which account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers.[3] Dell Inspiron 8100 Laptop Keyboard

Characteristic features of Turkish, such as vowel harmony, agglutination, and lack of grammatical gender, are universal within the Turkic family.[3] There is also a high degree of mutual intelligibility among the variousOghuz languages, which include Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, Balkan Gagauz Turkish and Oghuzinfluenced Crimean Tatar.[5] HP Mini 210-1014TU Laptop Keyboard

The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Divânü Lügati't-Türk), written during the 11th century by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

  The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family.[7] HP Pavilion dv6-3160ez laptop keyboard

The Codex Cumanicus (12th–13th centuries) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries. SAMSUNG NP-NB30-KP01 laptop keyboard

The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words).

Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other words in the row or that the equivalent was unknown to contributors to this article. SONY VAIO PCG-FX770K laptop keyboard

Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language. Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted. SONY VAIO VGN-N31Z/W laptop keyboard

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik) abbreviated to USSR (Russian: СССР, tr. SSSR) or the Soviet Union (Russian:Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), was a socialist state which espoused Marxist–Leninist ideology that existed between 1922 and 1991, ruled as a single-party state by the Communist Party with Moscow as its capital.[3] A union of multiple subnational Soviet republics, its government and economy were highly centralized. Compaq Presario CQ56 laptop keyboard

The Soviet Union had its roots in the Russian Revolution of 1917, which deposed the imperial autocracy. TheBolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, then overthrew the Provisional Government. The Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic was established and the Russian Civil War began. The Red Army entered several territories of the formerRussian Empire and helped local communists seize power. SONY VAIO VGN-NW50JB laptop keyboard

In 1922, the Bolsheviks were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism and initiated a centrally planned economy. HP Mini 110-1033cl Laptop Keyboard

As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialisation and collectivisation which laid the basis for its later war effort and dominance after World War II.[4] However, Stalin repressed both Communist Party members and elements of the population through his authoritarian rule. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

During the first phase of World War II, the Soviet Union used the opportunity to acquire territories in Eastern Europe adjacent to Nazi Germany, its satellites, and their occupied territories. Later in 1941, Nazi Germany invadedthe Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theatre of war in history and violating an earlier non-aggression pact between the two countries Lenovo Thinkpad X220i Laptop Keyboard

. The Soviet Union suffered the largest loss of life in the war, but halted the Axisadvance at intense battles such as that at Stalingrad, eventually driving through Eastern Europe and capturing Berlinin 1945. Having played a decisive role in the Allied victory in Europe,[5] the Soviet Union established the Eastern Bloc in much of Central and Eastern Europe and emerged as one of the world's two superpowers after the war. HP G61-420SL Laptop Keyboard

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Together with these new satellite states, through which the Soviet Union established economic and military pacts, it became involved in the Cold War, a prolonged ideological and political struggle against the Western Bloc, led by the other superpower, the United States. TOSHIBA 48.N5601.001A Laptop Keyboard

A de-Stalinization period followed Stalin's death, reducing the harshest aspects of society. The Soviet Union then went on to initiate significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including launching the first ever satellite and world's first human spaceflight, which led it into the Space Race. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis marked a period of extreme tension between the two superpowers, considered the closest to a mutual nuclear confrontation. In the 1970s, a relaxation of relations followed, but tensions resumed with Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The occupation drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results.[6][7] SONY VAIO VGN-N325QE/W Laptop Keyboard

In the late 1980s the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, also sought reforms in the Union, introducing the policies of glasnost and perestroika in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and democratize the government. However, this led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements. HP G42-164LA Laptop Keyboard

 Central authorities initiated a referendum, boycotted by the Baltic republics and Georgia, which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favour of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by hardliners against Gorbachev, with the intention of reversing his policies. HP G42-245BR Laptop Keyboard

The coup failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup but resulted in the restoration[8][9][10] of the Baltic states. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining 12 constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states.[11] The Russian Federation, continuator state of the Russian SFSR, assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognised as its continued legal personality.[12] HP Pavilion DV6-1108sl laptop keyboard

With an area of 22,276,060 square kilometres (8,600,830 sq mi), the Soviet Union was the world's largest state, a status that is retained by the Russian Federation.[13] Covering a sixth of the Earth's land surface, its size was comparable to that of North America.[14] The European portion accounted for a quarter of the country's area, and was the cultural and economic center. TOSHIBA Satellite P305-S8832 laptop keyboard

The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistanto the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) east to west across 12 time zones, and over 7,200 kilometres (4,500 mi) north to south. It had five climate zones: SONY VAIO VGN-SZ360P/C laptop keyboard

tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains.

The Soviet Union had the world's longest boundary, like Russia, measuring over 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), or 112circumferences of the Earth. Two-thirds of it were a coastline. Across the Bering Strait was the United States. The Soviet Union bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway,Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991. HP COMPAQ NC6120 laptop keyboard

The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajikistan, at 7,495 metres (24,590 ft). The Soviet Union also included most of the world's largest lake, the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and also Lake Baikal, the world's largest freshwater and deepest lake, an internal body of water in Russia. Lenovo 3000 Y510a 15303 laptop keyboard

The last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, ruled the Russian Empire until his abdication in March 1917 in the aftermath of the February Revolution, due in part to the strain of fighting in World War I, which lacked public support. A short-lived Russian Provisional Government took power, to be overthrown in the October Revolution (N.S. 7 November 1917) by revolutionaries led by the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin. HP Pavilion dv6-3351sf laptop keyboard

The Soviet Union was officially established in December 1922 with the union of the Russian, Ukrainian, Byelorussian, andTranscaucasian Soviet republics, each ruled by local Bolshevik parties. Despite the foundation of the Soviet state as a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities, HP G62-a40EV laptop keyboard

the term "Soviet Russia" – strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic – was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers and politicians.

A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard

culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I. HP Pavilion dv6-2055so laptop keyboard

At the same time, workers' councils, known in Russian as "Soviets", sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. HP G72-262NR laptop keyboard

In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war for good and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. ACER Aspire One D150-1Bk laptop keyboard

A long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of Nicholas II and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million.[15] In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, SONY 148044221 laptop keyboard

the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. The Soviet Union had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established Republic of Finland, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Latvia, and the Republic of Lithuania. HP Pavilion G7-1075DX laptop keyboard

Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the Decembrist Revolt of 1825. HP Pavilion G4-1050TU laptop keyboard

A parliament—the State Duma—was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but the Tsar resisted attempts to move from absolute toconstitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major Soviet cities HP NSK-H7A01 laptop keyboard

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