Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan ( i/tɜrkˈmɛnɨstæn/ or  i/tɜrkmɛnɨˈstɑːn/; Turkmen: Türkmenistan), formerly also known as Turkmenia, is one of the Turkic states in Central Asia. Turkmenistan is bordered by Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest, Uzbekistan to the east and northeast, SAMSUNG NP-N150-JP01 Laptop Keyboard

Kazakhstan to the northwest and the Caspian Sea to the west.

Present-day Turkmenistan covers territory that has been at the crossroads of civilizations for centuries. In medieval times Merv (today known as Mary) was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by Russian Empire in 1881, Turkmenistan later figured prominently in the anti-Bolshevik movement in Central Asia. ASUS X88S Laptop Keyboard

In 1924, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmen SSR); it achieved independence upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. [5] TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

Turkmenistan's GDP growth rate of 11% in 2012 comes on the back of several years of sustained high growth, albeit from a very basic undiversified economy powered by export of a single commodity.[6] It possesses the world's fourthlargest reserves of natural gas resources.[7] Although it is wealthy in natural resources in certain areas, most of the country is covered by the Karakum (Black Sand) Desert. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The Turkmen government operates as a single party state. Turkmenistan was ruled by President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov (called "Türkmenbaşy", "Leader of the Turkmens") until his sudden death on 21 December 2006. Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow was elected the new president on 11 February 2007. HP Pavilion dv6-2126eo Laptop Keyboard

In the eighth century A.D., Turkic-speaking Oghuz tribes moved from Mongolia into present-day Central Asia. Part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population.[8] In the tenth century, the name "Turkmen" was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted Islam and began to occupy present-day Turkmenistan.[8] There they were under the dominion of the Seljuk Empire,  ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present-day Iran and Turkmenistan.[8] Turkmen soldiers in the service of the empire played an important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present-day Azerbaijan and easternTurkey.[8] HP Pavilion dv6-2126eo Laptop Keyboard

In the twelfth century, Turkmen and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire.[8] In the next century, the Mongolstook over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled, scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups.[8] The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the nomadic Turkmen tribes, DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

who remained staunchly independent and inspired fear in their neighbors.[8] By the sixteenth century, most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary Uzbekkhanates, Khiva and Bukhoro.[8] IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period.[8]In the nineteenth century, raids and rebellions by the Yomud Turkmen group resulted in that group's dispersal by the Uzbek rulers.[8] According to Paul R. Spickard, "Prior to the Russian conquest, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

the Turkmen were known and feared for their involvement in the Central Asian slave trade."[9][10]

Russian forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the nineteenth century.[8] From their Caspian Sea base at Krasnovodsk (now Turkmenbashi), the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates.[8] SAMSUNG X20 Laptop Keyboard

In 1881 the last significant resistance in Turkmen territory was crushed at the Battle of Geok Tepe, and shortly thereafter Turkmenistan was annexed, together with adjoining Uzbek territory, into the Russian Empire.[8] In 1916 the Russian Empire's participation in World War I resonated in Turkmenistan, HP Pavilion dv6-3205tu Laptop Keyboard

as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia.[8] Although the Russian Revolution of 1917 had little direct impact, in the 1920s Turkmen forces joined Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Uzbeks in the so-calledBasmachi Rebellion against the rule of the newly formed Soviet Union.[8] In 1924 the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed from the tsarist province of Transcaspia.[8] SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B Laptop Keyboard

By the late 1930s, Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled political life.[8] The Ashgabat earthquake of 1948 killed over 110,000 people,[11] amounting to 2/3s of the city's population.

During the next half-century, Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and remained outside the course of major world events.[8] Even the major liberalization movement that shook Russia in the late 1980s had little impact.[8] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

However, in 1990 the Supreme Soviet of Turkmenistan declared sovereignty as a nationalist response to perceived exploitation by Moscow.[8] Although Turkmenistan was ill-prepared for independence and communist leader Saparmurad Niyazovpreferred to preserve the Soviet Union, in October 1991 the fragmentation of that entity forced him to call a national referendum that approved independence.[8]  Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

After independence Niyazov continued as Turkmenistan's chief of state, replacing communism with a unique brand of independent nationalism reinforced by a pervasive cult of personality.[8] A 1994 referendum and legislation in 1999 abolished further requirements for the president to stand for re-election (although in 1992 he completely dominated the only presidential electionin which he ran), ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

making him effectively president for life.[8] During his tenure, Niyazov conducted frequent purges of public officials and abolished organizations deemed threatening.[8]Throughout the post-Soviet era, Turkmenistan has taken a neutral position on almost all international issues.[8] TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-SP5010L laptop keyboard

Niyazov eschewed membership in regional organizations such as theShanghai Cooperation Organization, and in the late 1990s he maintained relations with theTaliban and its chief opponent in Afghanistan, the Northern Alliance.[8] He offered limited support to the military campaign against the Taliban following September 11, 2001.[8] In 2002 an alleged assassination attempt against Niyazov led to a new wave of security restrictions, IBM Thinkpad R40 laptop keyboard

dismissals of government officials, and restrictions placed on the media.[8] Niyazov accused exiled former foreign minister Boris Shikhmuradov of having planned the attack.[8]

Between 2002 and 2004, serious tension arose between Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan because of bilateral disputes and Niyazov's implication that Uzbekistan had a role in the 2002 assassination attempt.[8] In 2004 a series of bilateral treaties restored friendly relations.[8] HP Pavilion dv4-1199ea laptop keyboard

In the parliamentary elections of December 2004 and January 2005, only Niyazov's party was represented, and no international monitors participated.[8] In 2005 Niyazov exercised his dictatorial power by closing all hospitals outside Ashgabat and all rural libraries.[8] The year 2006 saw intensification of the trends of arbitrary policy changes, HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

shuffling of top officials, diminishing economic output outside the oil and gas sector, and isolation from regional and world organizations.[8] China was among a very few nations to whom Turkmenistan made significant overtures.[8] The sudden death of Niyazov at the end of 2006 left a complete vacuum of power, as his cult of personality, compared to that of former presidentKim Il Sung of North Korea, had precluded the naming of a successor.[8] Deputy Prime Minister Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, who was named interim head of government, won the special presidential election held in early February 2007.[8] He was re-elected in 2012 with 97% of the vote.[12] SONY VAIO VGN-FZ210CE laptop keyboard

President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov, a former bureaucrat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, ruled Turkmenistan from 1985, when he became head of the Communist Party of the Turkmen SSR, until his death in 2006. He retained absolute control over the country after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. On 28 December 1999, HP Pavilion dv6-2021el laptop keyboard

Niyazov was declared President for Life of Turkmenistan by the Mejlis (parliament), which itself had taken office a week earlier in elections that included only candidates hand-picked by President Niyazov. No opposition candidates were allowed. COMPAQ Presario CQ60-302SL laptop keyboard

Since the December 2006 death of Niyazov, Turkmenistan's leadership made tentative moves to open up the country. His successor, President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, repealed some of Niyazov's most idiosyncratic policies, including banning opera and the circus for being "insufficiently Turkmen". HP Pavilion dv6-2010sa laptop keyboard

In education, Berdimuhamedow's government had increased basic education to ten years from nine years, and higher education had been extended from four years to five. He has also increased contacts with the West, which is eager for access to the country's natural gas riches.

The politics of Turkmenistan take place in the framework of a presidential republic, with the President both head of state and head of government. Under Niyazov, Lenovo Thinkpad T520 laptop keyboard

Turkmenistan had a single-party system; however, in September 2008, the People's Council unanimously passed a resolution adopting a new Constitution. The latter resulted in the abolition of the Council and a significant increase in the size of Parliament in December 2008. The new Constitution also permits the formation of multiple political parties. SONY VAIO PCG-FR55E/B laptop keyboard

The former Communist Party, now known as the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan, has been the only one effectively permitted to operate. Political gatherings are illegal unless government sanctioned. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Turkmenistan has been widely criticised for human rights abuses and has imposed severe restrictions on foreign travel for its citizens.[13] Discrimination against the country's ethnic minorities remain in practice. Universities have been encouraged to reject applicants with non-Turkmen surnames, especially ethnic Russians.[14] It is forbidden to teach the customs and language of the Baloch, an ethnic minority. The same happens to Uzbeks, though the Uzbek language used to be taught in some national schools.[15] ACER Aspire 1410-742G16n Laptop Keyboard

According to Reporters Without Borders' 2012 World Press Freedom Index, Turkmenistan had the 2nd worst press freedom conditions in the world, behind North Korea. It is considered to be one of the "10 Most Censored Countries". Each broadcast under Niyazov began with a pledge that the broadcaster's tongue will shrivel if he slanders the country, flag, or president.[16]

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It is slightly smaller thanSpain and somewhat larger than the US state of California. It lies between latitudes 35° and 43° N, and longitudes 52° and 67° E.

Over 80% of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert. The center of the country is dominated by the Turan Depression and the Karakum Desert. The Kopet Dag Range, along the southwestern border, reaches 2,912 meters (9,553 ft) HP Pavilion dv6-3205tu Laptop Keyboard

at Kuh-e Rizeh (Mount Rizeh).[18]

The Great Balkhan Range in the west of the country (Balkan Province) and the Köýtendag Range on the southeastern border with Uzbekistan (Lebap Province) are the only other significant elevations. The Great Balkhan Range rises to 1,880 metres (6,170 ft) at Mount Arlan[19] and the highest summit in Turkmenistan is Ayrybaba in the Kugitangtau Range – 3,137 metres (10,292 ft).[20] Rivers include the Amu Darya, the Murghab, and the Tejen. TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

The climate is mostly arid subtropical desert, with little rainfall. Winters are mild and dry, with most precipitation falling between January and May. The area of the country with the heaviest precipitation is the Kopet Dag Range. HP Pavilion dv6-2126eo Laptop Keyboard

The Turkmen shore along the Caspian Sea is 1,768 kilometres (1,099 mi) long. The Caspian Sea is entirely landlocked, with no natural access to the ocean, although the Don-Volga canal allows shipping access to and from the Black Sea. Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

The major cities include Aşgabat, Türkmenbaşy (formerly Krasnovodsk) and Daşoguz.

The country possesses the world's fourth-largest reserves of natural gas and substantial oil resources.[21] Turkmenistan has taken a cautious approach to economic reform, hoping to use gas and cotton sales to sustain its economy. In 2004, the unemployment rate was estimated to be 60%.[22] HP Pavilion dv6-2132ec Laptop Keyboard

Between 1998 and 2002, Turkmenistan suffered from the continued lack of adequate export routes for natural gas and from obligations on extensive short-term external debt. At the same time, however, the value of total exports has risen sharply because of increases in international oil and gas prices. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Economic prospects in the near future are discouraging because of widespread internal poverty and the burden of foreign debt.[citation needed]

President Niyazov spent much of the country's revenue on extensively renovating cities, Ashgabat in particular. DELL Vostro PP37L Laptop Keyboard

Corruption watchdogs voiced particular concern over the management of Turkmenistan's currency reserves, most of which are held in off-budget funds such as the Foreign Exchange Reserve Fund in the Deutsche Bank in Frankfurt, according to a report released in April 2006 by London-based non-governmental organization Global Witness. ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard

According to the decree of the Peoples' Council of 14 August 2003,[23] electricity, natural gas, water and salt will be subsidized for citizens up to 2030. In addition car drivers are entitled to 120 litres of free petrol a month. Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

Drivers of buses, lorries and tractors can get 200 litres of fuel and motorcyclists and scooter riders 40 litres free. On 5 September 2006, after Turkmenistan threatened to cut off supplies, Russia agreed to raise the price it pays for Turkmen natural gas from $65 to $100 per 1,000 cubic meters. Two-thirds of Turkmen gas goes through the Russian state-owned Gazprom.[24] DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

The latest study in May 2011 stated that the South lolotan gas field is now easily the world's second-largest gas field in terms of gas-in-place. The estimated reserves at South Lolotan was about 21 trillion cubic metres.[25] The Turkmenistan Natural Gas Company (Türkmengaz), under the auspices of the Ministry of Oil and Gas, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

controls gas extraction in the country. Gas production is the most dynamic and promising sector of the national economy. In 2010 Ashgabat started a policy of diversifying export routes for its raw materials.[26] TOSHIBA NSK-TK001 Laptop Keyboard

China is set to become the largest buyer of gas from Turkmenistan over the coming years as a pipeline linking the two countries, through Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, reaches full capacity.[27] In addition to supplying Russia,  Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard

China and Iran, Ashgabat took concrete measures to accelerate progress in the construction of the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan and India pipeline (TAPI). Turkmenistan has previously estimated the cost of the project at $3.3 billion. On 21 May, HP Pavilion DV6-1000 Laptop Keyboard

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president Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow unexpectedly signed a decree stating that companies from Turkmenistan will build an internal East-West gas pipeline allowing the transfer of gas from the biggest deposits in Turkmenistan (Dowlatabad and Yolotan) to the Caspian coast. The East-West pipeline is planned to be around 1,000 km long and have a carrying capacity of 30 bn m³ annually, at a cost of between one and one and a half billion US dollars.[26] HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Most of Turkmenistan's oil is extracted by the Turkmenistan State Company (Concern) Türkmennebit from fields at Koturdepe, Balkanabat, and Cheleken near the Caspian Sea, which have a combined estimated reserve of 700 million tons. The oil extraction industry started with the exploitation of the fields in Cheleken in 1909 (by Nobel brothers) and Balkanabat in the 1930s, then production leaped ahead with the discovery of the Kumdag field in 1948 and the Koturdepe field in 1959. DELL NSK-DG101 Laptop Keyboard

A big part of the oil produced in Turkmenistan is refined in Turkmenbashy and Seidi refineries. Also, oil is exported by tankers through Caspian Sea to Europe via canals.[28]Turkmenistan is a net exporter of electrical power to Central Asian republics and southern neighbors. The most important generating installations are the Hindukush Hydroelectric Station, SONY V072078BS1 laptop keyboard

which has a rated capacity of 350 megawatts, and the Mary Thermoelectric Power Station, which has a rated capacity of 1,370 megawatts. In 1992, electrical power production totaled 14.9 billion kilowatt-hours.[29]

Half of the country's irrigated land is planted with cotton, making the country the world's ninth-largest cotton producer.[30] HP Mini 110-3020la laptop keyboard

During 2011 season, Turkmenistan produced around 1.1 million tons of raw cotton, mainly from Mary, Balkan, Akhal, Lebap and Dashoguz provinces. In 2012, around 7,000 tractors, 5,000 cotton cultivators, 2,200 sowing machines and other machinery, mainly procured from the Belarus and US, are being used. HP Pavilion dv4-1125nr laptop keyboard

The country traditionally exports raw cotton to Russia, Iran, South Korea, Britain, China, Indonesia, Turkey, Ukraine, Singapore and the Baltic nations.[31]

Most of Turkmenistan's citizens are ethnic Turkmens with sizeable minorities of Uzbeks and Russians. Smaller minorities include Kazakhs, Tatars, HP Pavilion DV4150US laptop keyboard

Ukrainians,Armenians, Azeris, Balochs and Pashtuns. The percentage of ethnic Russians in Turkmenistan dropped from 18.6% in 1939 to 9.5% in 1989. In 2012 its been confirmed that the population of Turkmenistan decreased due to some specific factors[which?] and its less than the previously estimated 5 million.[32] HP Pavilion DV7-3110tx laptop keyboard

The CIA World Factbook gives the ethnic composition of Turkmenistan as 85% Turkmen, 5% Uzbek, 4% Russian and 6% other (2003 estimates).[22] According to data announced in Ashgabat in February 2001, 91% of the population are Turkmen, 3% are Uzbeks and 2% are Russians. Between 1989 and 2001 the number of Turkmen in Turkmenistan doubled (from 2.5 to 4.9 million), while the number of Russians dropped by two-thirds (from 334,000 to slightly over 100,000).[33] IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X200 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

According to the CIA World Factbook, Muslims constitute 89% of the population while 9% of the population are followers of theEastern Orthodox Church and the remaining 2% religion is reported as non-religious.[22] However, according to a 2009 Pew Research Center report, 93.1% of Turkmenistan's population is Muslim. Lenovo Thinkpad T520 laptop keyboard

Missionaries were holy men and they often were adopted as patriarchs of particular clans or tribal groups, thereby becoming their "founders." Reformulation of communal identity around such figures accounts for one of the highly localized developments of Islamic practice in Turkmenistan. TOSHIBA Satellite U205-s5044 laptop keyboard

In the Soviet era, all religious beliefs were attacked by the communist authorities as superstition and "vestiges of the past." Most religious schooling and religious observance were banned, and the vast majority of mosques were closed. However, since 1990, efforts have been made to regain some of the cultural heritage lost under Soviet rule. TOSHIBA NB100 laptop keyboard

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Former president Saparmurat Niyazov ordered that basic Islamic principles be taught in public schools. More religious institutions, including religious schools and mosques, have appeared, many with the support of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, andTurkey. Religious classes are held in both schools and mosques, with instruction in Arabic language, the Qur'an and thehadith, and history of Islam.[8] HP Pavilion DV6-1000 laptop keyboard

President Niyazov wrote his own religious text, published in separate volumes in 2001 and 2004, entitled the Ruhnama. The Turkmenbashi regime required that the book, which formed the basis of the educational system in Turkmenistan, be given equal status with the Quran (mosques were required to display the two books side by side). The book was heavily promoted as part of the former president's personality cult, and knowledge of the Ruhnama is required even for obtaining a driver's license.[36] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

The history of Bahá'í Faith in Turkmenistan is as old as the religion itself, and Bahá'í communities still exist today.[37] The first Bahá'í House of Worship was built in Ashgabat at the beginning of the twentieth century. It was seized by the Soviets in the 1920s and converted to an art gallery. It was heavily damaged in the earthquake of 1948 and later demolished. The site was converted to a public park.[38] HP Pavilion DV6-1128el laptop keyboard

There are a number of newspapers and monthly magazines published in Turkmenistan. Turkmenistan currently broadcasts 6 national TV channels through satellite. They are Altyn asyr, Yashlyk, Miras, Turkmenistan (in 7 languages), Turkmen Owazy and Ashgabat. There are no commercial or private TV stations. Articles published by the state-controlled newspapers are heavily censored and written to glorify the state and its leader. COMPAQ Presario V6106AU laptop keyboard

Internet services are the least developed in Central Asia. Access to internet services are provided by the government's ISP company "Turkmentelekom". As of Dec. 31, 2011, it was estimated that there were 252,741 internet users in Turkmenistan or roughly 5% of total population.[42][43]

This is a list of countries by natural gas proven reserves based on The World Factbook.[1] SONY A1565184C laptop keyboard

Based on data from BP at the end of 2009 proved gas reserves are dominated by three countries: Russia (24%), Iran (16%) and Qatar (14%).[2] A study by Gaffney, Cline & Associates estimates Turkmenistan’s South Iolotan natural gas field reserve at 21.2 trillion cubic meters (tcm) - far above the BP estimate of 2.9 tcm for this field. This places Turkmenistan's reserves at 25.8 tcm, ahead of Qatar but still behind Iran.[3][4] IBM ThinkPad T40-2374 laptop keyboard

Due to constant announcements of shale gas recoverable reserves, as well as drilling in Central Asia, South America and Africa, deepwater drilling, estimates are undergoing frequent updates, with bias towards increases. TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6946 laptop keyboard

There is large discussion about the potential of shale gas reserves and large doubt about their economic and environmental sustainability, but it is clear that most of those reservoirs are still to be developed and discovered. In that sense the inventory of the gas proven reserves is likely to increase of size within the next years. Compaq Presario CQ42-258VX laptop keyboard

Russian attempts to encroach upon Turkmen territory began in earnest in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Of all the Central Asian peoples, the Turkmen put up the stiffest resistance against Russian expansion[citation needed]. In 1869 the Russian Empire established a foothold in present-day Turkmenistan with the foundation of the Caspian Seaport of Krasnovodsk (now Turkmenbashy). TOSHIBA Satellite l20-c430 laptop keyboard

In 1881 the Russians under General Mikhail Skobelev besieged and captured Geok Tepe, one of the last Turkmen strongholds, northwest of Ashgabat. With the Turkmen defeat (which is now marked by the Turkmen as a national day of mourning and a symbol of national pride), the annexation of what is present-day Turkmenistan met with only weak resistance. Later the same year, SONY Vaio PCG-K415B Laptop Keyboard

the Russians signed an agreement with the Persians and established what essentially remains the current border between Turkmenistan and Iran. In 1897 a similar agreement was signed between the Russians and Afghans.[1]  IBM Lenovo ThinkPad X300 Laptop Keyboard

Following annexation to Russia, the area was administered as the Transcaspian Region by corrupt and malfeasant military officers and officials appointed by the Turkestan Governor-Generalship in Tashkent[citation needed]. In the 1880s, a railroad was built from Krasnovodsk to Ashgabat and later extended to Tashkent. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Urban areas began to develop along the railway. Although the Transcaspian Region essentially was a colony of Russia, it remained a backwater, except for Russian concerns with British colonialist intentions in the region and with possible uprisings by the Turkmen.[1] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Because the Turkmen generally were indifferent to the advent of Soviet rule in 1917, little revolutionary activity occurred in the region in the years that followed. However, the years immediately preceding the revolution had been marked by sporadic Turkmen uprisings against Russian rule, most prominently the anti-tsarist revolt of 1916 that swept through the whole of Turkestan. TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

Their armed resistance to Soviet rule was part of the larger Basmachi Revoltthroughout Central Asia from the 1920s into the early 1930s. Although Soviet sources describe this struggle as a minor chapter in the republic's history, it is clear that opposition was fierce and resulted in the death of large numbers of Turkmen.[2] TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard

In October 1924, when Central Asia was divided into distinct political entities, the Transcaspian Region and Turkmen Oblast of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkestan ASSR) became the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmen SSR), a full-fledged constituent republic of the Soviet Union. During the forced collectivization and other extreme socioeconomic changes of the first decades HP AESP7U00110 Laptop Keyboard

of Soviet rule, pastoral nomadism ceased to be an economic alternative in Turkmenistan, and by the late 1930s the majority of Turkmen had become sedentary. Efforts by the Soviet state to undermine the traditional Turkmen way of life resulted in significant changes in familial and political relationships, HP G72-b67CA Laptop Keyboard

religious and cultural observances, and intellectual developments. Significant numbers of Russians and other Slavs, as well as groups from various nationalities mainly from the Caucasus, migrated to urban areas. Modest industrial capabilities were developed, and limited exploitation of Turkmenistan's natural resources was initiated.[2] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

Under Soviet rule, all religious beliefs were attacked by the communist authorities as superstition and "vestiges of the past." Most religious schooling and religious observance were banned, and the vast majority of mosques were closed. An official Muslim Board of Central Asia with a headquarters in Tashkent was established during World War II to supervise Islam in Central Asia. For the most part, SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

the Muslim Board functioned as an instrument of propaganda whose activities did little to enhance the Muslim cause. Atheist indoctrination stifled religious development and contributed to the isolation of the Turkmen from the international Muslim community. Some religious customs, such as Muslim burial and malecircumcision,  Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

continued to be practiced throughout the Soviet period, but most religious belief, knowledge, and customs were preserved only in rural areas in "folk form" as a kind of unofficial Islam not sanctioned by the state-run Spiritual Directorate.[3] HP G62-361TX Laptop Keyboard

Beginning in the 1930s, Moscow kept the republic under firm control. The nationalities policy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) fostered the development of a Turkmen political elite and promoted Russification. Slavs, both in Moscow and Turkmenistan, closely supervised the national cadre of government officials and bureaucrats; generally, SONY VAIO PCG-792L Laptop Keyboard

the Turkmen leadership staunchly supported Soviet policies. Moscow initiated nearly all political activity in the republic, and, except for a corruption scandal in the mid-1980s that ousted longtime General Secretary Muhammetnazar Gapurow, Turkmenistan remained a quiet Soviet republic. Mikhail S. Gorbachev's policies of glasnost and perestroika did not have a significant impact on Turkmenistan. The republic found itself rather unprepared for the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the independence that followed in 1991.[4] SONY VAIO VGN-AW15G Laptop Keyboard

When other constituent republics of the Soviet Union advanced claims to sovereignty in 1988 and 1989, Turkmenistan's leadership also began to criticize Moscow's economic and political policies as exploitative and detrimental to the well-being and pride of the Turkmen. By a unanimous vote of its Supreme Soviet, Turkmenistan declared its sovereignty in August 1990. After the August 1991 coup attempt against the Gorbachev regime in Moscow, IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Turkmenistan's communist leaderSaparmurat Niyazov called for a popular referendum on independence. The official result of the referendum was 94 percent in favor of independence. The republic's Supreme Soviet had little choice other than to declare Turkmenistan's independence from the Soviet Union and the establishment of the Republic of Turkmenistan on October 27, 1991.[4] Turkimenstan received independence from the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

Ashgabat is Aşgabat in Turkmen, Ашхабад (Ashkhabad) in Russian, and عشقآباد (UniPers: Ešq-âbâd) in Persian. From 1919 until 1927, the city was renamed Poltoratsk after a local revolutionary. Before 1991, the city was usually spelled Ashkabad in English, a transliteration of the Russian form, which was itself from the original Persian form. It has also been variously spelled Ashkhabat and Ashgabad. HP 492991-001 Laptop Keyboard

Root of the name of the city goes back to Arshacid Empire era, and derived from the name of the founder of the Parthian Empire, Arsaces I of Parthia. So it seems the original form of the name was Ashk-Abad(which means the city built by Ashk), and because of Turkish pronunciation of the name it became like it is today.[1] SAMSUNG N145 Laptop Keyboard

Ashgabat is a relatively young city, growing out of a village of the same name established by Russian officers in 1881 after the Battle of Geok Tepe. It is not far from the site of Nisa, the ancient capital of the Parthian Empire, and it grew on the ruins of the Silk Road city of Konjikala, which was first mentioned as a wine-producing village in 2nd century BC and was leveled by an earthquake in 1st century BC (a precursor of the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake). Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

Konjikala was rebuilt because of its advantageous location on the Silk Road and it flourished until its destruction by Mongols in the 13th century. After that it survived as a small village until Russians took over in the 19th century.[2][3] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

In 1869[citation needed], Russian soldiers built a fortress on a hill near the village, and this added security soon attracted merchants and craftsmen to the area. Ashgabat remained a part of Persia until 1881, following the Battle of Geok Tepe, when it was ceded to Tsarist Russia under the terms of the Akhal Treaty. ACER Aspire 4743 Series Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Russia chose to develop Ashgabat as a regional center due to its proximity to the border of British-influenced Persia. It was regarded as a pleasant town with European style buildings, shops and hotels. In 1908, the first Bahá'í House of Worship was built in Ashgabat. It was badly damaged in the 1948 earthquake and finally demolished in 1963.[4] The community of the Bahá'í Faith in Turkmenistan was largely based in Ashgabat. HP Pavilion DV4305US laptop keyboard

Soviet rule was established in Ashgabat in December 1917. However in July 1918 a coalition of Mensheviks, Social Revolutionaries and Tsarist former officers of the Imperial Russian Army revolted against the Bolshevik rule emanating from Tashkent and established the Ashkhabad Executive Committee. TOSHIBA Satellite U205 laptop keyboard

After receiving some support (but even more promises) from General Malleson, the British withdrew in April 1919, and the Tashkent Soviet resumed control of the city and in July 1919, when the city was renamed Poltoratsk (Полторацк) after a local revolutionary.[5] The name Ashgabat was restored in 1927 after the establishment of Turkmen SSR as a Soviet republic, though it was usually known by the Russian form Ashkhabad (Russian: HP AETT3U00010 laptop keyboard

Ашхабад). From this period onward, the city experienced rapid growth and industrialisation, although this was severely disrupted by a major earthquake on October 6, 1948. An estimated 7.3 on the Richter scale, the earthquake killed 110-176,000[6][7][8] (2/3 of the population of the city), although the official number announced by Soviet news was only 40,000.[9] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Museums include the Turkmen Fine Arts Museum and Turkmen Carpet Museum, noted for their impressive collection of woven carpets as well as a Turkmen history museum and the Ashgabat National Museum of History, which displays artifacts dating back to the Parthian and Persian civilizations. TFUJITSU Lifebook P7120D laptop keyboard

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he Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan is an important institute of higher learning. Large mosques include the Azadi Mosque (which resembles the Blue Mosque in Istanbul), the Khezrety Omar Mosque, and the futuristic Iranian Mosque. Ashgabat was also home to the Arch of Neutrality, a 250-foot-tall tripod crowned by a golden statue of late president Saparmurat Niyazov (also known as Turkmenbashi, TOSHIBA KFRSBA064A laptop keyboard

or leader of all Turkmen). The 50-foot-high statue, which rotated in order to always face the sun during daylight hours, was removed on August 26, 2010 after Niyazov’s successor, current President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, made it clear earlier in the year that the statue was going to be taken out of Ashgabat’s parliament square.[16] SAMSUNG NP-N145-JP02 laptop keyboard

In the mid-seventh century, the Sassanian Persian empire fell to an Arab-lead Islamic conquest. Under the Samanid dynasty(819–999), whose founder Saman Khuda of an Zoroastrian Sassanian Persian had converted to Islam, the city came to be known as Binkath. However, the Arabs retained the old name of Chach for the surrounding region, pronouncing it al-Shash instead. SONY VAIO VGN-CS16G/Q Laptop Keyboard

The modern Turkic name of Tashkent (City of Stone) comes from Kara-Khanid rule in the 10th century. (Tash in Turkic languages means stone. Kand, qand, kent, kad, kath, kud—all meaning a city—are derived from the Persian/Sogdian کنده kanda, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

meaning a town or a city. They are found in city names such as Samarkand,Yarkand, Penjikent, Khujand etc.). After the 16th century, the name evolved from Chachkand/Chashkand to Tashkand. The modern spelling of "Tashkent" reflectsRussian orthography and 20th-century Soviet influence. HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

In May, 1865, Mikhail Grigorevich Chernyayev (Cherniaev), acting against the direct orders of the tsar, and outnumbered at least 15-1 staged a daring night attack against a city with a wall 25 kilometres (16 mi) long with 11 gates and 30,000 defenders. While a small contingent staged a diversionary attack, the main force penetrated the walls, led by a Russian Orthodox priest armed only with a crucifix. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Although defense was stiff, the Russians captured the city after two days of heavy fighting and the loss of only 25 dead as opposed to several thousand of the defenders (including Alimqul, the ruler of the Kokand Khanate). Chernyayev, dubbed the "Lion of Tashkent" by city elders, staged a "hearts-and-minds" campaign to win the population over. He abolished taxes for a year, rode unarmed through the streets and bazaars meeting common people, and appointed himself "Military Governor of Tashkent", HP Probook 4510S Laptop Keyboard

recommending toTsar Alexander II that the city be made an independent khanate under Russian protection.

The Tsar liberally rewarded Chernyayev and his men with medals and bonuses, but regarded the impulsive general as a "loose cannon", and soon replaced him with General Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufman. HP 550 Laptop Keyboard

Far from being granted independence, Tashkent became the capital of the new territory of Russian Turkistan, with Kaufman as first Governor-General. A cantonment and Russian settlement were built across the Ankhor Canal from the old city, and Russian settlers and merchants poured in. SONY VAIO VGN-NW15G/T Laptop Keyboard

The Turkestan Military Districtwas established as part of the military reforms of 1874. The Trans-Caspian Railway arrived in 1889, and the railway workers who built it settled in Tashkent as well, bringing with them the seeds of Bolshevik Revolution. TOSHIBA Satellite P300 Laptop Keyboard

With the fall of the Russian Empire, the Russian Provisional Government removed all civil restrictions based on religion and nationality, contributing to local enthusiasm for the February Revolution. The Tashkent Soviet of Soldiers' and Workers' Deputies was soon set up, but primarily represented Russian residents,  HP Pavilion DV6-1030us Laptop Keyboard

who made up about a fifth of the Tashkent population. Muslim leaders quickly set up the Tashkent Muslim Council (Tashkand Shura-yi-Islamiya) based in the old city. On 10 March 1917, there was a parade with Russian workers marching with red flags, Russian soldiers singing La Marseillaise and thousands of local Central Asians. Following various speeches, Governor-General Aleksey Kuropatkin closed the events with words "Long Live a great free Russia".[3]  ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The First Turkestan Muslim Conference was held in Tashkent 16–20 April 1917. Like the Muslim Council, it was dominated by the Jadid, Muslim reformers. A more conservative faction emerged in Tashkent centered around the Ulema. This faction proved more successful during the local elections of July 1917. They formed an alliance with Russian conservatives, while the Soviet became more radical. The Soviet attempt to seize power in September 1917 proved unsuccessful.[4] DELL Inspiron M5030 Laptop Keyboard

In April 1918, Tashkent became the capital of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkestan ASSR). The new regime was threatened by White foDELL PF236 Laptop Keyboard

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borders of the Uzbek SSR, and became the capital of the Uzbek SSR, displacing Samarkand.

The city began to industrialize in the 1920s and 1930s.

Violating the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. The government worked to relocate factories from western Russia and Ukraine to Tashkent to preserve the Soviet industrial capacity. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

This led to great increase in industry during World War II.

It also evacuated most of the German communist emigres to Tashkent.[5] The Russian population increased dramatically; evacuees from the war zones increased the total population of Tashkent to well over a million. Russians and Ukrainians eventually comprised more than half of the total residents of Tashkent.[6] Many of the former refugees stayed in Tashkent to live after the war, rather than return to former homes. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

During the postwar period, the Soviet Union established numerous scientific and engineering facilities in Tashkent.

On 26 April 1966, much of the old city was destroyed by a huge earthquake (7.5 on the Richter scale). More than 300,000 residents were left homeless. Some 78,000 poorly engineered homes were destroyed,[7] mainly in the densely packed areas of the old city, where traditional adobe housing predominated.[8] HP 516884-001 Laptop Keyboard

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The Soviet republics, and some other countries such as Finland, sent "battalions of fraternal peoples” and urban planners to help rebuild devastated Tashkent. They created a model Soviet city of wide streets planted with shade trees, parks, immense plazas for parades, fountains, monuments, and acres of apartment blocks. IBM 42T4026 laptop keyboard

About 100,000 new homes were built by 1970,[7] but the builders occupied many, rather than the homeless residents of Tashkent. Further development in the following years increased the size of the city with major new developments in the Chilonzor area, north-east and south-east of the city.[7] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

At the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Tashkent was the fourth-largest city in the USSR and a center of learning in the fields of science and engineering.

Due to the 1966 earthquake and the Soviet redevelopment, little architectural heritage has survived of Tashkent's ancient history. Few structures mark its significance as a trading point on the historic Silk Road. SONY VAIO VGN-AW21M laptop keyboard

Tashkent is the capital of and the most cosmopolitan city in Uzbekistan. It was noted for its tree-lined streets, numerous fountains, and pleasant parks, at least until the tree-cutting campaigns initiated in 2009 by local government.[9] Lenovo 63Y0047 laptop keyboard

Since 1991, the city has changed economically, culturally, and architecturally. New development has superseded or replaced icons of the Soviet era. The largest statue ever erected for Lenin was replaced with a globe, featuring a geographic map of Uzbekistan. Buildings from the Soviet era have been replaced with new modern buildings. The "Downtown Tashkent" district includes the 22-story NBU Bank building, an Intercontinental Hotel, the International Business Center, and the Plaza Building. Compaq Presario CQ71-310SB laptop keyboard

In 2007, Tashkent was named the "cultural capital of the Islamic world" by Moscow News, as the city has numerous historic mosques and significant Islamic sites, including the Isamic University.[10] Tashkent holds the earliest written Qur'an, which has been located in Tashkent since 1924.[11] HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard

Tashkent 41°18′N 69°16′E is situated in a well-watered plain to the west of the last Altai mountains[citation needed] on the road betweenShymkent and Samarkand. Tashkent sits at the confluence of the Chirchik river and several of its tributaries and is built on deep alluvial deposits up to 15 metres (49 ft). The city is located in an active tectonic area suffering large numbers of tremors and some earthquakes. One earthquake in 1966 measured 7.5 on the Richter scale. The local time in Tashkent is UTC/GMT +5 hours. HP G71-329WM laptop keyboard

Tashkent features a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa)[13] with strongcontinental climate influences (Köppen: Dsa).[13] As a result Tashkent experiences short cold winters not typically associated with most Mediterranean climates and long, hot and dry summers. Winters are short and cold, covering the months of December, HP Pavilion dv5-1215ee laptop keyboard

January and February. Mostprecipitation occurs during these months (frequently falling as snow). However snow cover tends to be relatively brief as the city frequently experiences warmer periods during the winter. The city experiences two peaks of precipitation in the early winter and spring. The slightly unusual precipitation pattern is partially due to its 500 m (roughly 1600 feet) altitude. Summers are long in Taskent, TOSHIBA G83c00018610 laptop keyboard

usually lasting from May to September. Tashkent can be extremely hot during the months of July and August. The city also sees very little precipitation during the summer, particularly from June through September. ASUS F81 laptop keyboard

At 1983, the population of Tashkent amounted 1.902.000 people living in a municipal area of 256 km2 (99 sq mi). At 1991, the number of permanent residents of the capital had been growth to approximately 2,136.600. TOSHIBA PK130260100 Laptop Keyboard

Tashkent was the fourth most populated city in the former USSR, after Moscow, Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and Kiev). Nowadays, Tashkent maintains the status of the fourth most populous city in the space of the CIS and Baltic countries. The resident population of Tashkent on 1 January 2012 accounted to 2,309,300 people (there are unofficial estimates, taking into account the temporary migrants,  Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

who could be from 1.0 to 1.2 million people) As of 2008, the national structure of Tashkent was as follows: Astana (Russian/Kazakh: Астана, formerly known as Akmola (Kazakh: Ақмола / Aqmola) until 1998, Tselinograd(Russian: Целиноград) until 1992 and Akmolinsk (Russian: Акмолинск) until 1961), Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

has been the capital of Kazakhstan since 1997, and is the country's second largest city (after Almaty, the former capital) with an officially estimated population of 775,800 as of 21 June 2012.[3] It is located in the north portion of Kazakhstan, within Akmola Province, though administrated separately from the province as a federal city area. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

The current mayor of Astana is Imangali Tasmagambetov. He was appointed on 4 April 2008.

The word Astana in Kazakh literally means Capital but the word itself originates from Persian Astane (Persian: آستانه‎ means "sublime threshold", "royal porte" implying a royal capital city or a holy shrine town, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

 (from the Persian verb Istadan (آستان) 'to stand' (in respect)), and literally means "threshold" (royal or sacred, where people stand in respect or awe),[citation needed] implying where the court is seated (the capital city) or the body of a sacred person is interred (a shrine town). The city of Turkestan in Kazakhstan that hosts the body of the saint Ahmad Yasavi is also called the "astana" as is the city of Mashhad in Iran that is the burial place of the 8th Shiite Imam Reza. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

In fact, long before becoming the new capital of Kazakhstan, the city was "an astana", a burial ground of a saint, hence the old name of the city, Ak Mola (Ақмола), "white mausoleum".

In June 2008, a parliamentary proposal was put forward to change the city's name to "Nursultan", in honor ofPresident Nursultan Nazarbayev. ACER 9J.N9482.11B Laptop Keyboard

The idea was rejected by Nazarbayev himself, who said the decision of renaming the city will be for future generations.[4]Despite this,[5] some commentators think that the generic name Astana was deliberately chosen so that it would be renamed in honour of Nazarbayev after his death. HP Pavilion dv4-1070ee Laptop Keyboard

A unit of Siberian Cossacks from Omsk founded a huge fortress on the upper Ishim in 1824, which later became the town of "Akmolinsk". During the early 20th century, the town became a major railway junction, causing a major economic boom that lasted until the Russian Civil War. HP 576835-001 Laptop Keyboard

In the Stalinist era, Kazakhstan hosted a series of Gulag-like labour camps; in total, 11 camps that housed up to hundreds of thousands of internees and their families. Outside Astana, there once stood the ALZHIR camp, a Russian acronym for the Akmolinskii Camp for Wives of Traitors of the Motherland, one of the most notorious in the Gulag archipelago, which was reserved for the spouses of those considered "enemies of the people" by the government under Joseph Stalin.[6]

In 1961, TOSHIBA Satellite L775D-S7340 Laptop Keyboard

it was renamed "Tselinograd" ("Virgin Lands City"[7]) and made capital of the Soviet Virgin Lands Territory (Tselinny Krai). The city was at the centre of the Virgin Lands Campaign led by Nikita Khrushchev in the 1950s, in order to turn the state into a second grain producer for the Soviet Union. HP 608558-001 Laptop Keyboard

Additionally, many Russian-Germans were resettled here after being deported under Joseph Stalin at the beginning of World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union.

After Kazakhstan became independent in 1990, the city and the region were renamed "Akmola", literally meaning "White Temple". SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

In 1995, the city was designated as the future capital of the newly-independent country, and the capital was officially moved from Almaty on December 10, 1997.[7] The new name, Astana, was bestowed in 1998.[8] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Government officials cited several problems with keeping the capital in Almaty, such as the city's risk of seismic activity, insufficient room for expansion, and proximity to international borders.[9] Additionally, parts of northern Kazakhstan are populated primarily by ethnic Russians, which raised fears of possible irredentist activity. Moving the capital to this area may have been an attempt to anchor it more closely with the rest of the country.[9] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

To some Kazakhs, the move remains controversial. Critics cite the city's isolated location in the center of the Kazakh steppeand the forbidding climate in winter.[10] Financially, some resent the massive expenditure of public funds to build the new government complexes, as well as the continuing cost of airfare and hotel expenses for the many government workers who still live in Almaty.[11] DELL Inspiron 500m Laptop Keyboard

Astana is the second coldest capital city in the world after Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, a position formerly held by Canada's capital, Ottawa, until Astana attained capital city status in 1998. Astana has an extreme continental climate with warm summers (featuring occasional brief rain showers) and long, very cold, dry winters. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

Summer temperatures occasionally reach35 °C (95 °F) while −30 °C (−22 °F) to −35 °C (−31 °F) is not unusual between mid-December and early March. The city also holds the record for the lowest air temperature ever recorded in Kazakhstan (-51°C). Typically, the city's river freezes over between the second week of November and the beginning of April. Astana has a well deserved reputation among Kazakhstanis for its frequent high winds, ASUS F6A Laptop Keyboard

 the effects of which are felt particularly strongly on the fast-developing but relatively exposed Left Bank area of the city.

Overall, Astana has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb),[13] bordering on a semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk). The average annual temperature in Astana is 3.5 °C (38.3 °F). January is the coldest month with an average temperature of −14.2 °C (6 °F). July is the hottest month with an average temperature of 20.8 °C(69 °F). SONY 148024421 Laptop Keyboard

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As of July 1, 2010, Astana has a population density of 958 people per square kilometre and a population of about 705,897,[1][16] of which Kazakhs, Russians, Ukrainians, Tatars and Germans make up 65.2%, 23.8%, 2.9%, 1.7%, 1.5% respectively. Other ethnic groups make up 4.9% of Astana's population.[citation needed] HP Envy 17-2077ez Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In 1999, Astana had a population of 281,000. The ethnic mix was about 30% Kazakh and 70% Russian, Ukrainian and German.[17]

By 2007, Astana's population has more than doubled since the move, to over 600,000, and it is estimated to top 1 million by 2030. Migrant workers – legal and illegal – have been attracted from across Kazakhstan and neighboring states such as Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, and Astana is a magnet for young professionals seeking to build a career. HP Envy 17-1190nr Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

This has changed the city's demographics, bringing more ethnic Kazakhs to a city that formerly had a Slav majority. Astana's ethnic Kazakh population has risen to some 60%, up from 17% in 1989.[16] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Many[who?] argue that a drive to attract ethnic Kazakhs northward was the key factor in shifting the capital, which was officially put down to lack of space for expansion in the former capital, Almaty, and its location in an earthquake zone. TOSHIBA Satellite L505D-ES5025 laptop keyboard

According to preliminary figures, Astana had 700,000 inhabitants in late 2007.[18] Kazakhstani official statistical service estimates city population 691,529 (1 March 2010[19]). According to the 1999 Census, 40.5% of the population is Russian, 5.7% Ukrainian, 3.0% German, 2.6% Tatar, 1.8% Belorussian and 0.8% Polish. But at 41.8%, Kazakhs outnumbered Russians and were forming the largest ethnic group, while Ingush and Korean each accounted for 0.6%. Others, mostly Uzbeks, accounted for 3.8%.HP G72-a10SA laptop keyboard

North of the railway line, which crosses Astana in an east-west direction, are industrial and poorer residential areas. Between the railway line and the river Ishim is the city center, where at present intense building activity is occurring. To the west and east are more elevated residential areas with parks and the new area of government administration to the south of the Ishim. Here many large building projects are underway; HP Pavilion dv6-2030ev laptop keyboard

for example, the construction of a diplomatic quarter, and a variety of different government buildings. By 2030, these quarters are to be completed. The original plans for the new Astana were drawn up by the late Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa. Astana's current chief planner, Vladimir Laptev, wants to build a Berlin in a Eurasian style. He has stated that a purely administrative capital such as Canberra is not one of his goals. Lenovo 04W0872 laptop keyboard

The pyramid has been conceived and designed by architect Sir Norman Foster and engineers Buro Happold and inaugurated in September 2006. It contains accommodations for different religions: Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, DELL 0RT129 laptop keyboard

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Daoismand other faiths. It also houses a 1,500- seat opera house, a national museum of culture, a new “university of civilization”, a library and a research center for Kazakhstan’s ethnic and geographical groups. This diversity is unified within the pure form of a pyramid, 62 meters high with a 62 x 62-meter base. The building is conceived as a global center for religious understanding, TOSHIBA PK130260100 laptop keyboard

the renunciation of violence and the promotion of faith and human equality. The Pyramid of Peace expresses the spirit of Kazakhstan, where cultures, traditions and representatives of various nationalities coexist in peace, harmony and accord. HP Mini 311-1000NR laptop keyboard

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; Height: 77 m (252.62 ft)p total area: 25,500 sq.m.; Accommodates: Opera Hall for 1,500 seats, The Museum of National History, The Research Center of World Religions, Library of Spiritual Religious Literature, Exhibition and conference rooms [21] SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard

The Concert Hall has been conceived and designed by Italian architect Manfredi Nicoletti as a result of an International Competition and inaugurated by president Nursultan Nazarbayev in December 2009. The building shape is reminiscent of the petals of a flower. These "petals" create an imposing envelope which encloses and protects all the functions from the extreme climatic conditions of Astana. TOSHIBA Satellite M40x Series laptop keyboard

It houses one of world’s biggest Concert Halls for classical music with a total of 3,500 seats in vineyard conformation, two small music, cinema and conference halls with 400 and 200 seats each, restaurants, bars and a lobby of about 3000sqm. The main music hall has been designed to adapt to all kind of performances such as classical, pop and traditional music concerts, theatre, ballet, conferences and cinema, SONY Vaio VGN-FW100 laptop keyboard

by means of a special false ceiling design and a system of acoustic curtains. The building is approximately 200m long and rises up to 40m high for a total of 55.000sqm. The structure of the external wall (the “petals”) are reinforced concrete. The external cladding is done with blue back-painted transparent glass panels inspired by the colour of the Kazakhstan flag. HP Pavilion dv3-2320es Laptop Keyboard

Astana is home to FC Astana and FC Astana-64, of which the latter won the national championship in 2000, 2001 and 2006. The city is also home to the Astana Tigers basketball team who successfully took the 2004/2005 season title, as well as Barys Astana of the Kontinental Hockey League. In addition, Lenovo 63Y0047 Laptop Keyboard

Astana has a professional cycling team. They participated in the 2007 Tour de France wearing uniforms in Kazakhstani national colors, but were excluded during the race after the failed test of Alexander Vinokourov for illegal doping practises, and was banned from the 2008 race.[23] Astana returned to the Tour de France in 2009 and won the overall Team Classification, DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

with Alberto Contador and Lance Armstrong finishing first and third respectively. In 2010 Contador again won the Tour de France with the Astana team, but announced in August 2010 that he would be leaving the Astana team to join the Sunguard-SaxoBank team in 2011.

A bandy team by the name of Dynamo-Astana has been formed, and an indoor bandy arena is being built for Dynamo.[24] TOSHIBA Satellite A110 Series Laptop Keyboard

The 2011 Asian Winter Games were partly held in the capital.

Bishkek (in Kyrgyz and Russian: Бишкéк), formerly Pishpek and Frunze, is the capital and the largest city ofKyrgyzstan. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The name is thought to derive from a Kyrgyz word for a churn used to make fermented mare's milk (kumis), the Kyrgyz national drink. Founded in 1825 as the Kyrgyz-Khokand fortress of "Bishkek", then, in 1862, named as the Russian fortress Pishpek (крепость Пишпек),[4] in 1926 the city was renamed Frunze (Фрунзе), after theBolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze. In 1991, the Kyrgyz parliament restored the city's historical name. HP Pavilion dv6-3035sl Laptop Keyboard

Bishkek is situated at about 800 metres (2,600 ft) altitude just off the northern fringe of the Kyrgyz Ala-Too range, an extension of the Tian Shan mountain range, which rises up to 4,855 metres (15,928 ft) and provides a spectacular backdrop to the city. North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe extends far north into neighboringKazakhstan. The Chui River drains most of the area. Bishkek is connected to the Turkestan-Siberia Railway by a spur line. HP Pavilion DV7-4053 Laptop Keyboard

Bishkek is a city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings combined with numerous Soviet-style apartment blocks surrounding interior courtyards and, especially outside the city centre, thousands of smaller privately built houses. It is laid out on a grid pattern, with most streets flanked on both sides by narrow irrigation channels that water the innumerable trees which provide shade in the hot summers. SONY VAIO VPCF126FM Laptop Keyboard

Originally a caravan rest stop (possibly founded by the Sogdians) on one of the branches of the Silk Road through theTian Shan range, the location was fortified in 1825 by the Uzbek khan of Kokhand with a mud fort. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In 1862, the fort was conquered and razed when Tsarist Russia annexed the area. The Russians rebuilt the town over the destroyed fort. The site became a Russian garrison and was redeveloped and named "Pishpek" from 1877 onward by the Russian government, which encouraged the settlement of Russian peasants by giving them fertile black soil farms to develop. In 1926, SONY VAIO VGN-N21S/W Laptop Keyboard

the city became the capital of the newly established Kirghiz ASSR and was renamed "Frunze" afterMikhail Frunze, Lenin's close associate who was born in Bishkek and played key roles during the 1905 and 1917 revolutions and during the Russian civil war of the early 1920s.

The early 1990s were tumultuous. DELL Vostro 1510 Laptop Keyboard

In June 1990, a state of emergency was declared following severe riots in southern Kyrgyzstan which threatened to spread to the capital. The city was renamed Bishkek on 5 February 1991 and Kyrgyzstan achieved independence later that year during the breakup of the Soviet Union. Before independence, Bishkek was a "Russified" city, the majority of its population being ethnic Russians. In 2004, Russians made up approximately 20% of the city's population (only about 7–8% in 2011).[5][dead link] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

Today, Bishkek is a modernizing city, with many restaurants and cafes and lots of second-hand European and Japanese cars and minibuses crowding its streets. But streets and sidewalks have fallen into disrepair since the Russians started rapidly leaving in the 90s. At the same time Bishkek still preserves its former Soviet feel, with Soviet-period buildings and gardens prevailing over newer structures. Lenovo 0A62075 Laptop Keyboard

Bishkek is also the country's financial centre, with all of the country's 21 commercial banks featuring offices in the city. During the Soviet era, the city was home to a large number of industrial plants, but most have been shut down after 1991 or operate today on a much reduced scale. One of Bishkek's largest employment centres today is Dordoy Bazaar, which is one of the major entrepôts for Chinese goods imported into CIS countries. SONY VAIO VGN-CR210EL Laptop Keyboard

Though the city is relatively young, the surrounding area has some sites of interest dating from prehistory, the Greco-Buddhist period, the period of Nestorian influence, the era of the Central Asian khanates, and the Soviet period. DELL Vostro 1015 Laptop Keyboard

The central part of the city is primarily built on a rectangular grid plan. The city's main street is the east-west Chui Avenue (Chuy Prospekti), named after the region's main river. In the Soviet era, it was called Lenin Avenue. Along, or within a block or two from it, many of the most important government buildings, universities, the Academy of Sciencescompound, and so on, are to be found. The westernmost section of the avenue is known as Deng Xiaoping Avenue. HP 608558-001 Laptop Keyboard

The main north-south axis is Yusup Abdrakhmanov Street, still (2007) commonly referred to by its old name, Sovietskaya Street. Its northern and southern sections are called, respectively, Yelebesov and Baityk Batyr Streets. Several major shopping centres are located along it, and in the north it provides access to Dordoy Bazaar.

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In the past, it was called Dzerzhinsky Boulevard—named after Communist revolutionary, Felix Dzerzhinsky—and its northern continuation is still called Dzerzhinsky Street.

An important east-west street is Jibek Jolu ('Silk Road'). It runs parallel to Chui Avenue about a mile north of it, and is part of the main east-west road of Chui Province. Both the Eastern and Western bus terminals are located along Jibek Jolu. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

There is a Roman Catholic church located at ul. Vasiljeva 197 (near Rynok Bayat). This is the only Catholic Cathedral in Kyrgyzstan.[6]

Bishkek uses the Kyrgyzstan currency, the som. The som's value fluctuates regularly, but averages around 47 som per U.S. Dollar as of March 2011. The economy in Bishkek is primarily agricultural with the mass amounts of fruits, vegetables and livestock providing a co-existing system of bartering in the outlying regions. TOSHIBA Satellite Pro C650-EZ1515D laptop keyboard

The streets of Bishkek are regularly lined with produce vendors in a market style venue. In the major portions of downtown there is a more urban cityscape with banks, stores, markets and malls. The most sought after of the goods are the prevalent hand-crafted artisan pieces; these include statues, carvings, paintings and many nature based sculptures. HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

Local government is administered by the Bishkek Mayor's Office. Askarbek Salymbekov was mayor until his resignation in August 2005, following which his deputy Arstanbek Nogoev took over the mayorship. Nogoev was in turn removed from his position in October 2007 through a decree of President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and replaced by businessman and former first deputy prime minister Daniar Usenov.[21][22][23] SONY N860-7676-T101 laptop keyboard

In July 2008 former head of the Kyrgyz Railways Nariman Tuleyev was appointed mayor, who was dismissed by the interim government after 7 April 2010. Now interim mayor is Isa Omurkulov, also a former head of the Kyrgyz Railways.[24] HP Pavilion dv6-2140ef laptop keyboard

There are two main bus stations in Bishkek. The smaller old Eastern Bus Station is primarily the terminal for minibuses to various destinations within or just beyond the eastern suburbs, such as Kant, Kyrgyzstan, Tokmok, Kemin, Issyk Ata, or theKorday border crossing.

Long-distance regular bus and minibus services to all parts of the country, as well as to Almaty (the largest city in neighboring Kazakhstan) and Kashgar, China, HP Pavilion dv6-2135ev laptop keyboard

run mostly from the newer grand Western Bus Station; only a smaller minority of them runs from the Eastern Station.

The Dordoy Bazaar on the north-eastern outskirts of the city also contains makeshift terminals for frequent minibuses to suburban towns in all directions (from Sokuluk in the west to Tokmak in the east) and to some buses taking traders to Kazakhstan and Siberia. SONY VAIO VGN-AR230G laptop keyboard

Bishkek is home to Spartak, the biggest football stadium in Kyrgyzstan and the only one eligible to host international matches.[25] Several Bishkek-based football teams play on this pitch, including six-time Kyrgyzstan League champions, Dordoi-Dynamo.

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Alex Kantrowitz (Russian man), originally from Bishkek, is a noted Olympic swimmer for the Czech Republic.

There are also long-distance trains that leave for Siberia (Novosibirsk and Novokuznetsk), via Almaty, over the Turksibroute, and to Yekaterinburg (Sverdlovsk) in the Urals, via Astana. These services are remarkably slow (over 48 hours to Yekaterinburg), DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

due to long stops at the border and the indirect route (the trains first have to go west for more than a 100 kilometres (62 mi) before they enter the main Turksib line and can continue to the east or north). For example, as of the fall of 2008, train No. 305 Bishkek-Yekaterinburg was scheduled to take 11 hours to reach the Shu junction—a distance of some 269 kilometres (167 mi) by rail, and less than half of that by road.[39] DELL Inspiron 1526 Laptop Keyboard

The city is served by Manas International Airport (IATA code FRU), located approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) northwest of the city centre, and readily reachable by taxi.

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the United States obtained the right to use Manas International Airport as an air base for its military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. Russia subsequently (2003) established an air base of its own (Kant Air Base) near Kant some 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Bishkek. It is based at a facility that used to be home to a major Soviet military pilot training school; one of its students, Hosni Mubarak, later became president of Egypt. DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

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