Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

Sana'a is the capital of Yemen and the centre of Sana'a Governorate. The city is not part of the Governorate, but forms the separate administrative district of "Amanat Al-Asemah".

Sana'a is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. At an altitude of 2,300 metres (7,500 ft), it is also one of the highest capital cities in the world. Sana'a has a population of approximately 1,937,500 (2012), making it Yemen's largest city. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

The old city of Sana'a, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has a distinctive visual character due its unique architectural characteristics, most notably expressed in its multi-storey buildings decorated with geometric patterns.[1][2] Located here is the Great Mosque of Sana'a, the largest in the city. DELL Vostro 3550 Laptop Keyboard

Sana'a is the one of the oldest populated places in the world. According to popular legend, it was founded byShem, the son of Noah.[3][4] It was known as "Azal" in ancient times, referring to Uzal, a son of Qahtan, who was a great-grandson of Shem. Its current name likely derived from the South Arabian word for "well-fortified".DELL UW739 Laptop Keyboard

The Arab historian al-Hamdani wrote that Sana'a was walled by the Sabeans under their ruler Sha'r Awtar, who also built theGhumdan Palace in the city. Because of its location, Sana'a has served as an urban center for the surrounding tribes of the region and as a nucleus of regional trade in southern Arabia. It was positioned at the crossroad of two major ancient trade routes linking Marib in the east to the Red Sea in the west.[4] HP Pavilion G6-1B59WM Laptop Keyboard

When King Yousef Athar (or Dhu Nuwas), the last of the Himyarite kings, was in power, Sana'a was also the capital of theEthiopian viceroys.

From the dawn of Islam until the founding of independent sub-states in many parts of the Yemen Islamic Caliphate, Sana'a persisted as the governing seat. The Caliph's deputy ran the affairs of one of Yemen's three Makhalifs: Mikhlaf Sana'a, Mikhlaf al-Janad and Mikhlaf Hadhramawt. The city of Sana'a regularly regained an important status and all Yemenite States competed to control it. DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

Imam al-Shafi'i, the 8th-century Islamic jurist and founder of the Shafi'i school or jurisprudence, visited Sana'a several times. He praised the city, writing La budda min Ṣanʻāʼ, or "Sana'a must be seen." In the 9th–10th centuries, the Yemeni geographer al-Hamdani took note of the city's cleanliness, saying "The least dwelling there has a well or two, a garden and long cesspits separate from each other, HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

empty of ordure, without smell or evil odors, because of the hard concrete (adobe and Cob probably) and fine pastureland and clean places to walk." Later in the 10th-century, the Persian geographer Ibn Rustahwrote of Sana'a "It is the city of Yemen—there not being found ... a city greater, more populous or more prosperous, of nobler origin or more delicious food than it." Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

In 1062 Sana'a was taken over by the Sulayhid dynasty led by Ali al-Sulayhi and his wife, the popular Queen Asma. He made the city capital of his relatively small kingdom, which also included the Haraz Mountains. The Sulayhids were aligned with theIsmaili Muslim-leaning Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt, rather than the Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate which most of Arabiafollowed. HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard

Al-Sulayhi ruled for about 20 years but he was assassinated by his principal local rivals, the Zabid-based Najahids. Following his death, al-Sulayhi's daughter, Arwa al-Sulayhi, inherited the throne. She withdrew from Sana'a, transferring the Sulayhid capital to Jibla, where she ruled much of Yemen from 1067 to 1138. As a result of the Sulayhid departure, the Hamdanid dynasty took control of Sana'a.[5] ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

In 1173 Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, sent his brother Turan-Shah on an expedition to conquer Yemen. The Ayyubids gained control of Sana'a in 1175 and united the various Yemeni tribal states, except for the northern mountains controlled by the Zaydi imams, into one entity.[5] The Ayyubids switched the country's official religious allegiance to the Sunni Muslim Abbasids. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

During the reign of the Ayyubid emir Tughtekin ibn Ayyub, the city underwent significant improvements. These included the incorporation of the garden lands on the western bank of the Sa'ilah, known as Bustan al-Sultan, where the Ayyubids built one of their palaces.[6] Despite Sana'a's strategic position, the Ayyubids chose Ta'izz as their capital while Aden was their principal income-producing city. HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

While the Rasulids controlled most of Yemen, followed by their successors the Tahirids, Sana'a largely remained in the political orbit of the Zaydi imams from 1323 to 1454 and outside the former two dynasties' rule.[7] The Mamelukes arrived in Yemen in 1517. TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5361 laptop keyboard

The Ottoman Empire entered Yemen in 1538 when Suleiman the Magnificent was Sultan.[8] Under the military leadership of Özdemir Pasha, the Ottomans conquered Sana'a in 1547.[7] With Ottoman approval, European captains based in the Yemeni port towns of Aden and Mocha frequented Sana'a to maintain special privileges and capitulations for their trade. In 1602 the local Zaydi imams led by Imam al-Mu'ayyad reasserted their control over the area,[8]  HP G71t-400 CTO laptop keyboard

SONY Vaio VGN-AW270Y laptop keyboard

and forced out Ottoman troops in 1629. Although the Ottomans fled during al-Mu'ayyad's reign, his predecessor al-Mansur al-Qasim had vastly weakened the Ottoman army in Sana'a and Yemen.[7]Consequently, European traders were stripped of their previous privileges.[8] SONY VGN-FE11M laptop keyboard

The Zaydi imams maintained their rule over Sana'a until the mid 19th-century, when the Ottomans relaunched their campaign to control the region. In 1835, Ottoman troops arrived on the Yemeni coast under the guise of Muhammad Ali of Egypt's troops.[8] They did not capture Sana'a until 1872, when their troops led byAhmed Muhtar Pasha entered the city.[7] The Ottoman Empire instituted the Tanzimat reforms throughout the lands they governed. FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 laptop keyboard

In Sana'a, city planning was initiated for the first time, new roads were built, and schools and hospitals were established. The reforms were rushed by the Ottomans in order to solidify their control of Sana'a to compete with an expanding Egypt, British influence in Aden and imperial Italian and French influence along the coast of Somalia, particularly in the towns of Djibouti and Berbera. The modernization reforms in Sana'a were still very limited, however.[9] DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard

In 1904, as Ottoman influence was waning in Yemen, Imam Yahya of the Zaydi imams took power in Sana'a. In a bid to secureNorth Yemen's independence, Yahya embarked on a policy of isolationism, avoiding international and Arab world politics, cracking down on embryonic liberal movements, not contributing to the development of infrastructure in Sana'a and elsewhere and closing down the Ottoman girls' school. As a consequence of Yahya's measures, Sana'a increasingly became a center of anti-government organization and intellectual revolt.[9] TOSHIBA Satellite L505-S6946 laptop keyboard

In the 1930s, several organizations opposing or demanding reform of the Zaydi imamate sprung up in the city, particularly Fatat al-Fulayhi, a group of various Yemeni Muslim scholars based in Sana'a's Fulayhi Madrasa, and Hait al-Nidal ("Committee of the Struggle.") By 1936 the leaders of these movements mostly imprisoned. In 1941 another group based in the city, the Shabab al-Amr bil-Maruf wal-Nahian al-Munkar, called for a nahda ("renaissance")TOSHIBA G83C0000E510 laptop keyboard

in the country as well as the establishment of a parliament with Islam being the instrument of Yemeni revival. Yahya largely repressed the Shabab and most of its leaders were executed following his son, Imam Ahmad's inheritance of power in 1948.[9] That year, Sana'a was replaced with Ta'izz as capital following Ahmad's new residence there. Most government offices followed suit. A few years later, most of the city's Jewish population emigrated to Israel.[10] HP 605344-001 laptop keyboard

HP Mini 110-3505tu laptop keyboard

Ahmad began a process of gradual economic and political liberalization, but by 1961 Sana'a was witnessing major demonstrations and riots demanding quicker reform and change. Pro-republican officers in the North Yemeni military sympathetic of Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt's government and pan-Arabist policies staged a coup overthrowing the Imamate government in September 1962, a week after Ahmad's death.[9] HP Pavilion dv3-2155ee laptop keyboard

Sana'a's role as capital was restored afterward. [10] NeighboringSaudi Arabia opposed this development and actively supported North Yemen's rural tribes, pitting large parts of the country against the urban and largely pro-republican inhabitants of Sana'a.[9] HP Pavilion DV7-3078nr laptop keyboard

The North Yemen Civil War resulted in the destruction of some parts of the city's ancient heritage and continued until 1968 when a deal between the republicans and the royalists was reached,[10] establishing a presidential system. Instability in Sana'a continued due to continuing coups and political assassinations until the situation in the country stabilized in the late 1970s.[9] HP Pavilion DV7-3078nr laptop keyboard

British writer Jonathan Raban visited in the 1970s and described the city as fortress-like, its architecture and layout resembling a labyrinth," further noting "It was like stepping out into the middle of a vast pop-up picturebook. Away from the street, the whole city turned into a maze of another kind, a dense, jumbled alphabet of signs and symbols." Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

Sana'a features the very rare mild version of a desert climate. Sana'a sees on average approximately 200 mm of precipitation per year. However, due to its high elevation, temperatures are much more moderate than many other cities on the Arabian Peninsula. In fact, average temperatures remain relatively constant throughout the year in Sana'a, with its coldest month being January and its warmest month in July. ACER Aspire 7738G laptop keyboard

The city seldom experiences extreme heat or cold. However, some areas around the city can see temperatures fall to around 15 °F or 20 °F (−9 °C or −7 °C) during winter. Frost usually occurs in the early winter mornings, and there is a slight wind chill in the city at elevated ares that causes the cold mornings to be oddly bitter, including low humidity. The Sun warms the city to the high 60s °F (15…20 °C) and low 70s °F (21…26 °C) ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

during the noontime but it drops drastically as night falls in. The city experiences manymicroclimates from district to district because of its location in the Sana'a basin and uneven elevations throughout the city. Summers are warm and can cool rapidly at night, especially after rainfall. Sana'a receives half of its annual rainfall during the months of July and August. Rainfall comes depending on the year; COMPAQ Presario C710BR Laptop Keyboard

some years could see 500–600 mm of rainfall, while others can barely get 150 mm. High temperatures have increased slightly during the summer over the past few years, however, low temperatures and winter temperatures have dramatically fallen over the same period.

HP AETT3U00010 Laptop Keyboard

It was declared a World Heritage Site by the United Nations in 1986. Efforts are underway to preserve some of the oldest buildings some of which, such as the Samsarh and the Great Mosque of Sana'a, are more than 1,400 years old. Surrounded by ancient clay walls which stand 9–14 metres (30–46 ft) high, the old city contains more than 100 mosques, 12 hammams (baths) and 6,500 houses. Many of the houses resemble ancient skyscrapers, reaching several stories high and topped with flat roofs. They are decorated with elaborate friezes and intricately carved frames and stained-glass windows. ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

One of the most popular attractions is Suq al-Milh (Salt Market), where it is possible to buy salt along with bread, spices, raisins, cotton, copper, pottery, silverware, and antiques. The 7th-century Jami' al-Kabir (Great Mosque) is one of the oldest mosques in the world. The Bāb al-Yaman (Yemen Gate) is an iconized entry point through the city walls and is more than 1,000 years old. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

A commercial area of the old city is known as Al Madina where development is proceeding rapidly. In addition to three large hotels, there are numerous stores and restaurants. The area also contains three parks and the President's SONY VAIO VGN-AW15G Laptop Keyboard

 (approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000 sq mi), constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula) and the second-largest in the Arab world (after Algeria). It is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast, Yemen in the south, the Red Sea to the west and Persian Gulf to the east. Its population is estimated to consist of 16 million citizens and an additional 9 million registered foreign expatriates and 2 million illegal immigrants.[10] ACER K032130A1 Laptop Keyboard

 The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as Al Saud. TheSaudi Arabian government has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, and it describes itself as beingIslamic. SONY VAIO VGN-FS840 Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and the kingdom is sometimes called "the Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam. HP G61-304NR Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabia has the world's largest oil reserves which are concentrated largely in the Eastern Province.[11][12] Oil accounts for more than 95% of exports and 70% of government revenue, although the share of the non-oil economy has been growing recently. This has facilitated the transformation of an underdeveloped desert kingdom into one of the world's wealthiest nations. Vast oil revenues have permitted rapid modernisation, such as the creation of a welfare state.[13] It has also the world's sixth largest SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Following the unification of the kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-ʻArabīyah as-Suʻūdīyah (a transliteration of المملكة العربية السعودية in Arabic) by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, king Abdul Aziz Al Saud. This is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English,[14] although it literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom".[15] HP pavilion DV7-1000 Laptop Keyboard

The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Suʻūdīyah in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a nisba, formed from the dynastic name of Al Saud (آل سعود). Its inclusion indicated that the country's ruler viewed it as the personal possession of the royal family.[16][17] Al Saud is anArabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning "family of" or "House of",[18] to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynasty's 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud (Muhammad, son of Saud).[19] SONY VAIO VGN-CR23G laptop keyboard

Apart from a small number of urban trading settlements, such as Mecca and Medina, located in the Hejaz in the west of theArabian Peninsula, most of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic tribal societies in the inhospitable desert.[20] The Prophet of Islam, Muhammad, was born in Mecca in about 571. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united thevarious tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. DELL Vostro PP38L laptop keyboard

Packard Bell Easynote TM80 laptop keyboard

Following his death in 632, his followers rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering huge swathes of territory (from the Iberian Peninsula in west to modern day Pakistan in east) in a matter of decades. In so doing, Arabia soon became a politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the more developed conquered lands.[21] From the 10th century to the early 20th century Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, HP Pavilion dv6-2114sa laptop keyboard

HP Pavilion zv5320us laptop keyboard

but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.[22][23] SONY VAIO VGN-NW120J laptop keyboard

In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and Al-Hasa) to the Empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean.[24] Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority.[25][26] Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Nejdin central Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab,[27] founder of theWahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.[28] ACER Aspire One A110-1588 laptop keyboard

This alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.[29] The first "Saudi state" established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh, rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[30] ACER Aspire One AO532 laptop keyboard

but was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha.[31] A much smaller second "Saudi state", located mainly in Nejd, was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.[22]  ACER AEZU2R00010 laptop keyboard

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty (albeit nominal) over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers,[32][33] SONY VAIO VGN-FS215E laptop keyboard

with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.[34] In 1902, Ibn Saud took control of Riyadh in Nejd and brought the Al Saud back to Nejd.[22]) Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan, a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by Sultan ibn Bijad and Faisal Al-Dawish, and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912.[35] With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Hasa from the Ottomans in 1913. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.[36] Although the Arab Revolt of 1916 to 1918 failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia.[37]  TOSHIBA Satellite M35X-SP349 laptop keyboard

Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt, and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title Sultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Hejaz was conquered in 1924-25 and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself King of the Hejaz.[38]A year later, he added the title of King of Nejd.[22] SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard

After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. Compaq Presario CQ56-110US laptop keyboard

At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favor modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1930 at the Battle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred.[39] In 1932 the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[22] SONY KFRMBA152A laptop keyboard

From the foundation of Saudi Arabia to the present day

The new kingdom was one of the poorest countries in the world, reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.[40] However, in 1938 vast reserves of oilwere discovered in the Al-Hasa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlledAramco (Arabian American Oil Company). TOSHIBA Satellite A205-S5804 laptop keyboard

Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the center for newspapers and radio. But the large influx of foreigners to work in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing.[22] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

King Saud succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1953. However, an intense rivalry between the King and his half-brother,Prince Faisal emerged, fueled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. As a consequence, Saud was deposed in favor of Faisal in 1964. Saudi Arabia gained control of a proportion (20%)TOSHIBA Satellite P105-S6114 laptop keyboard

of Aramco in 1972, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil. In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an oil boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in the October War against Egypt and Syria. Oil prices quadrupled.[22] Faisal was assassinated in 1975 by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid.[41] Packard Bell Easynote TM99 laptop keyboard

By 1976 Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.[42] Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;[22] in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.[41] In 1979, TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5359 laptop keyboard

two events occurred which greatly concerned the Al Saud regime,[43] and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. In fact, there were several anti-government uprisings in the region in 1979 and 1980. DELL PVDG3 laptop keyboard

The second event, was the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi regime.[44] The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days and those captured were executed. SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard

Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce a much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the Ulema a greater role in government.[45] Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.[46] HP Pavilion dv6-2020sa Laptop Keyboard

In 1980 Saudi Arabia took full control of Aramco from the US.

King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982, and was succeeded by his brother, King Fahd, who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in 1986. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.[22] The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. SONY KFRMBA152A Laptop Keyboard

It led to rapid modernisation, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family[22] leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.[47] HP Compaq G50-133US Laptop Keyboard

In the 1980s, the Saudi regime spent $25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran-Iraq War.[48] However, Saudi Arabia condemned the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked the US to intervene.[22] SONY VAIO VGN-NR11Z/S Laptop Keyboard

King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait.  HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

The Saudi regime's relations with the West began to cause growing concern among some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamic terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamic terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. SONY KFRMBA152A Laptop Keyboard

Osama bin Laden was a Saudi national (until stripped of his nationality in 1994). 15 of the 19 hijackers involved in 9/11 attacks on New York, Washington and Virginia were Saudi nationals.[49] Many Saudis, who did not in any way support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the Saudi regime's policies.[50] DELL Inspiron M5030 Laptop Keyboard

Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the regime. Although now extremely wealthy, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent, and has been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited "reforms" were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "Basic Law)" which emphasised the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993 the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members - all chosen by the king. Compaq Presario CQ57-310 Laptop Keyboard

The King's intent was to respond to dissent while making as few actual changes in the status quo as possible. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]."[22] DELL NSK-DJD01 Laptop Keyboard

In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke and the Crown Prince, Abdullah assumed the role of de facto regent, taking on the day-to-day running of the country. However, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven").[51] From the 1990s, TOSHIBA Satellite l20-121 Laptop Keyboard

signs of discontent continued and included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar.[52] In February–April 2005, the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part in the poll.[22] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced a number of economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. HP G61-410EL Laptop Keyboard

In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister.[22]  ASUS F3H Laptop Keyboard

On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in the city of Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after deadly floods swept through the city, killing eleven people.[53] Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.[54] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

In 2011 and 2012 Saudi Arabia was affected by its own Arab Spring protests.[55] In response, King Abdullah announced a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $10.7 billion. No political reforms were announced as part of the package, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.[56] Although male-only municipal elections were held on 29 September 2011 [57][58] Abdullah announced that women will be able to vote and be elected in the 2015 municipal elections, and also to be nominated to the Shura Council.[59] ACER TravelMate 6292 Laptop Keyboard

HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy,[60] although, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia(that is, Islamic law) and the Quran. The Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution, but no written modern constitution has ever been written for Saudi Arabia, HP G62-b10EV laptop keyboard

and Saudi Arabia remains the only Arab nation where no national elections have ever taken place, since its creation.[61] No political parties or national elections are permitted[60] and according to The Economist's 2010 Democracy Index, the Saudi government is the seventh most authoritarian regime from among the 167 countries rated.[62] LENOVO AEQA1STU010 laptop keyboard

In the absence of national elections and political parties,[60] politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.[63] Outside of the Al-Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs and members of important commercial families on major decisions.[64] This process is not reported by the Saudi media.[65] IBM ThinkPad T42 2378 laptop keyboard

By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis.[66] In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong and, outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, TOSHIBA Satellite L655-128 laptop keyboard

with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events.[64]As mentioned earlier, in recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.[67] Lenovo Thinkpad X220 laptop keyboard

The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the Shi'ite minority – particularly in theEastern Province; and long-standing tribal and regional particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz).[68] Of these, the Islamic activists have been the most prominent threat to the regime and have in recent years perpetrated a number of violent or terrorist acts in the country.[52] However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated. SONY VGN-FE780G laptop keyboard

On 25 September 2011, Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah has announced that women will have the right to stand and vote in future local elections and join the advisory Shura council as full members.[69]

prime minister, and presides over the Council of Ministers (Majlis al-Wuzarāʾ), which comprises the first and second deputy prime. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allow it to control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government.[71] The number of princes is estimated to be at least 7,000, with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of King Abdul Aziz. HP Pavilion dv6-2105et laptop keyboard

73]Long term political and government appointments, such as those of King Abdullah, who had been Commander of the National Guard since 1963 (until 2010, when he appointed his son to replace him)[74]), former Crown Prince Sultan, Minister of Defence and Aviation from 1962 to his death in 2011, former crown prince Prince Nayef who was the Minister of Interior from 1975 to his death in 2012, Prince Saud who has been Minister of Foreign Affairs since 1975[75] and current Minister of Defence and Aviation Prince Salman, who was Governor of the Riyadh Province from 1962 to 2011,[76] have resulted in the creation of "power fiefdoms" for senior princes.[77] SONY VAIO VGN-N11M laptop keyboard

The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal ambitions and ideological differences.[63] The most powerful clan faction is known as the 'Sudairi Seven', comprising the late King Fahd and his full brothers and their descendants.[78] Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of reform,[79] Compaq Presario CQ42 laptop keyboard

HP 431416-001 laptop keyboard

and whether the role of the ulema should be increased or reduced. There were divisions within the family over who should succeed to the throne after the accession or earlier death of Prince Sultan.[78][80] When prince Sultan died before ascending to the throne on 21 October 2011, King Abdullah appointed Prince Nayef as crown prince.[81] Prince Nayef also died before ascending to the throne in 2012.[82] HP Compaq G50-133US laptop keyboard

The Saudi government and the royal family have often, over many years, been accused of corruption.[83] In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them,[17] the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred.[72] The extent of corruption has been described as systemic[84] and endemic,[85] and its existence was acknowledged[86] and defended[87] TOSHIBA KFRSBA064A laptop keyboard

by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family[88]) in an interview in 2001.[89] Although corruption allegations have often been limited to broad undocumented accusations,[90] specific allegations were made in 2007, when it was claimed that the British defence contractor BAE Systems had paid Prince Bandar US$2 billion in bribes relating to the Al-Yamamah arms deal.[91] Lenovo 3000 Y500 7761 laptop keyboard

Prince Bandar denied the allegations.[92] Investigations by both US and UK authorities resulted, in 2010, in plea bargain agreements with the company, by which it paid $447 million in fines but did not admit to bribery.[93] Transparency International in its annual Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010 gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").[94]  HP Pavilion dv6-2125el laptop keyboard

There has been mounting pressure to reform and modernize the royal family's rule, an agenda championed by King Abdullah both before and after his accession in 2005. The creation of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s did not satisfy demands for political participation, and, in 2003, an annual National Dialogue Forum was announced that would allow selected professionals and intellectuals to publicly debate current national issues, within certain prescribed parameters. TOSHIBA Satellite P10 Series laptop keyboard

In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession.[67] In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post.  HP Mini 210-1073TU laptop keyboard

96]

Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema

Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government,[97] the only other example being Iran.[98] The ulema have also been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990.[99] In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems[100] and a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals.[101] SONY Vaio VGN-AW290J laptop keyboard

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the country initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were under way and the power of the ulema was in decline.[102] However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals. SONY Vaio PCG-K45 laptop keyboard

45] Since his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah has taken steps to rein back the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring their control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.[104] ACER TravelMate 6292 laptop keyboard

The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,[105] the country's leading religious family.[101] The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.[106] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)[107] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[108] HP Pavilion dv6-2019ax laptop keyboard

and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.[99] The pact, which persists to this day,[108] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[109] ACER Aspire 7745G Laptop Keyboard

thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[110] Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,[111] they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.[101] HP AEUT3U00020 Laptop Keyboard

The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Qu'ran and the Sunnah (the traditions of the Prophet).[70] Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence (or fiqh) found in pre-modern texts[113]  DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qu'ran and hadith.[114] Nevertheless, because the judge is empowered to disregard previous judgments (either his own or of other judges) and will apply his personal interpretation of Sharia to any particular case, divergent judgements arise even in apparently identical cases.[115] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as regulations rather than laws because they are subordinate to the Sharia.[70] Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labor, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant.[116] FUJITSU Lifebook P7120 Laptop Keyboard

The Sharia court system constitutes the basic judiciary of Saudi Arabia and its judges and lawyers form part of the ulema, the country's religious leadership. However, there are also extra-Sharia government tribunals which handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees.[117] DELL NSK-DD101 Laptop Keyboard

Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the King and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.[118] The Saudi system of justice has been criticized for being slow, arcane,[119] lacking in some of the safeguards of justice and unable to deal with the modern world.[120] HP Pavilion ze4130 Laptop Keyboard

In 2007, King Abdullah issued royal decrees reforming the judiciary and creating a new court system, although the reforms have yet to be implemented.[115] The capabilities and reactionary nature of the judges have, in particular, been criticized[121] and, in 2009, the King made a number of significant changes to the judiciary's personnel at the most senior level by bringing in a younger generation.[119] HP Mini 210-1073TU Laptop Keyboard

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia has long been criticized for its human rights record, with Western-based organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watchcondemning both the criminal justice system and its severe punishments. However, "ordinary Saudis", according to a BBC report, support the system and say that it maintains a low crime rate.[122] There are no jury trials in Saudi Arabia and courts observe few formalities.[123] TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5150 Laptop Keyboard

Human Rights Watch, in a 2008 report, noted that a criminal procedure code had been introduced for the first time in 2002, but it lacked some basic protections and, in any case, had been routinely ignored by judges. Those arrested are often not informed of the crime of which they are accused or given access to a lawyer and are subject to abusive treatment and torture if they do not confess. At trial, there is a presumption of guilt and the accused is often unable to examine witnesses and evidence or present a legal defense. Most trials are held in secret.[124] HP Pavilion DV7-3065dx Laptop Keyboard

The physical punishments imposed by Saudi courts, such as beheading, stoning, amputation and lashing, and the number of executions have been strongly criticized.[126] The death penalty can be imposed for a wide range of offences including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery and can be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad, followed by crucifixion.[127][128] The 345 reported executions between 2007 and 2010 were all carried out by public beheading. The last reported execution for sorcery took place in Jun SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

e 2012[129] and three recent convictions for witchcraft did not result in execution.

Although repeated theft can be punishable by amputation of the right hand, only one instance of judicial amputation was reported between 2007 and 2010. Gay rights are not recognised. Homosexual acts are punishable by flogging or death.[127][130]Lashings are a common form of punishment[131] and are often imposed for offences against religion and public morality such as drinking alcohol and neglect of prayer and fasting obligations.[127] HP Mini 110-3120la Laptop Keyboard

Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye.[121] Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya, or blood money, by the perpetrator.[132] Other human rights issues that have attracted strong criticism include the extremely disadvantaged position of women (see Women in Saudi society below), religious discrimination, the lack of religious freedom and the activities of the religious police (see Religion below).[126] Lenovo ThinkPad T410-2516 Laptop Keyboard

Between 1996 and 2000, Saudi Arabia acceded to four UN human rights conventions and, in 2004, the government approved the establishment of the National Society for Human Rights (NSHR), staffed by government employees, to monitor their implementation. To date, the activities of the NSHR have been limited and doubts remain over its neutrality and independence.[133] Lenovo Thinkpad T410I Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabia remains one of the very few countries in the world not to accept the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In response to the continuing criticism of its human rights record, the Saudi government points to the special Islamic character of the country, and asserts that this justifies a different social and political order.[134] ASUS A6700L Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Between the mid-1970s and 2002 Saudi Arabia expended over $70 billion in "overseas development aid".[139] However, there is evidence that the vast majority was, in fact, spent on propagating and extending the influence of Wahhabism at the expense of other forms of Islam.[140] There has been an intense debate over whether Saudi aid and Wahhabism has fomented extremism in recipient countries.[141] Toshiba Satellite L655D-S5055 Laptop

The two main allegations are that, by its nature, Wahhabism encourages intolerance and promotes terrorism.[142] Former CIAdirector James Woolsey described it as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing. HP Pavilion dv6-2160es laptop keyboard

HP Pavilion dv2-1044ca laptop keyboard

TOSHIBA MP-06863US-9308 laptop keyboard

144]

In the Arab and Muslim worlds, Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western and pro-American,[145] and it is certainly a long-term ally of the United States.[146] However, this[147] and Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, particularly the stationing of U.S. troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally.[148] As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S. and, for example, TOSHIBA Satellite M40x Series laptop keyboard

refused to support or to participate in the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[64] Relations with the United States became strained following 9/11.[149] American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture.[150] Indeed, Osama bin Laden and fifteen out of the nineteen 9/11 hijackers were from Saudi Arabia.[151] According to the U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard

"Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide."[152] SONY VAIO VGN-SZ770N laptop keyboard

Saudi Arabia's increasing alarm at the rise of Iran is reflected in the reported private comments of King Abdullah[153] urging the US to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake".[154] Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the Arab-Israeli conflict, ACER Aspire One A110-1626 laptop keyboard

periodically putting forward a peace plan betweenIsrael and the Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah.[155] Following the Arab Spring Saudi Arabia offered asylum to deposed President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali of Tunisia and King Abdullah telephoned President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt (prior to his deposition) to offer his support.[156] DELL Latitude E6400 laptop keyboard

The Saudi military consists of the Royal Saudi Land Forces, the Royal Saudi Air Force, the Royal Saudi Navy, the Royal Saudi Air Defense, the Saudi Arabian National Guard (SANG, an independent military force), and paramilitary forces, totaling nearly 200,000 active-duty personnel. COMPAQ Presario V6103EA laptop keyboard

In 2005 the armed forces had the following personnel: the army, 75,000; the air force, 18,000; air defense, 16,000; the navy, 15,500 (including 3,000 marines); and the SANG had 75,000 active soldiers and 25,000 tribal levies. [157] In addition, there is an Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah military intelligence service. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

The SANG is not a reserve but a fully operational front-line force, and originated out of Abdul Aziz's tribal military-religious force, the Ikhwan. Its modern existence, however, is attributable to it being effectively Abdullah's private army since the 1960s and, unlike the rest of the armed forces, is independent of the Ministry of Defense and Aviation. The SANG has been a counterbalance to the Sudairi faction in the royal family: Prince Sultan, the Minister of Defense and Aviation, is one of the so-called 'Sudairi Seven' and controls the remainder of the armed forces.[158] TOSHIBA Satellite 1410-S173 laptop keyboard

Spending on defense and security has increased significantly since the mid-'90s and was about US$25.4 billion in 2005. Saudi Arabia ranks among the top 10 in the world in government spending for its military, representing about 7% of gross domestic product in 2005. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations, with its military equipment being supplied primarily by the US, DELL Inspiron 1564 laptop keyboard

France and Britain.[157] The United States sold more than $80 billion in military hardware between 1951 and 2006 to the Saudi military.[159] On 20 October 2010, the U.S. State Department notified Congress of its intention to make the biggest arms sale in American history – an estimated $60.5 billion purchase by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The package represents a considerable improvement in the offensive capability of the Saudi armed forces.[160] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

The UK has also been a major supplier of military equipment to Saudi Arabia since 1965.[161] Since 1985, the UK has supplied military aircraft – notably the Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon combat aircraft – and other equipment as part of the long-term Al-Yamamah arms deal estimated to have been worth £43 billion by 2006 and thought to be worth a further £40 billion.[162] TOSHIBA Satellite C655-SP6007L laptop keyboard

Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian peninsula,[165] lying between latitudes 16° and 33° N, and longitudes34° and 56° E. Because the country's southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely defined or marked, the exact size of the country remains unknown.[165] The CIA World Factbook's estimate is 2,250,000 km2(868,730 sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's 13th largest state.[166] HP Pavilion dv6-3034nr laptop keyboard

Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert and associated semi-desert and shrubland (see satellite image to right). It is, in fact, a number of linked deserts and includes the 647,500 km2 (250,001 sq mi) Rub' al Khali("Empty Quarter") in the southern part of the country, the world's largest contiguous sand desert.[64][167] There are virtually no rivers or lakes in the country, but wadis are numerous. SONY VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q laptop keyboard

The few fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.[64] The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah parallel to which runs an imposing escarpment. The southwest province ofAsir is mountainous, and contains the 3,133 m (10,279 ft) Mount Sawda, which is the highest point in the country.[64] HP Pavilion dv6-3141se laptop keyboard

Except for the southwestern province of Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with extremely high day-time temperatures and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around 113 °F (45 °C), but can be as high as 129 °F(54 °C). In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 32 °F (0 °C). HP Pavilion dv6-2154ca laptop keyboard

In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 84 °F (29 °C). Annual rainfall is extremely low. The Asir region differs in that it is influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, that is about 60% of the annual precipitation.[168] TOSHIBA Tecra M6 laptop keyboard

SONY VAIO VGN-NW240F laptop keyboard



Animal life includes wolves, hyenas, mongooses, baboons, hares, sand rats, and jerboas. Larger animals such as gazelles,oryx, and leopards were relatively numerous until the 1950s, when hunting from motor vehicles reduced these animals almost to extinction. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, DELL Inspiron 510m Laptop Keyboard

vultures, sand grouse andbulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous, and numerous types of lizards. There is a wide variety of marine life in the Persian Gulf. Domesticated animals include camels, sheep, goats, donkeys, and chickens. Reflecting the country's desert conditions, Saudi Arabia's plant life mostly consists of small herbs and shrubs requiring little water. There are a few small areas of grass and trees in southern Asir. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread.[64] DELL 454RX Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabia's command economy is petroleum-based; roughly 75% of budget revenues and 90% of export earnings come from the oil industry. The oil industry comprises about 45% of Saudi Arabia's nominal gross domestic product, compared with 40% from the private sector (see below). Saudi Arabia officially has about 260 billion barrels (4.1×1010 m3) of oil reserves, comprising about one-fifth of the world's proven total petroleum reserves.[170] SONY VAIO VGN-N325QE/W Laptop Keyboard

DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

The government is attempting to promote growth in the private sector by privatizing industries such as power and telecommunications. Saudi Arabia announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity companies in 1999, which followed the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company. Shortages of water and rapid population growth may constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in agricultural products. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

In the 1990s, Saudi Arabia experienced a significant contraction of oil revenues combined with a high rate of population growth. Per capita income fell from a high of $11,700 at the height of the oil boom in 1981 to $6,300 in 1998.[171] Increases in oil prices since 2000 have helped boost per capita GDP to $17,000 in 2007 dollars, or about $7,400 adjusted for inflation.[172] Taking into account the impact of the real oil price changes on the Kingdom's real gross domestic income, the real command-basis GDP was computed to be 330.381 billion 1999 USD in 2010.[173] HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

Oil price increases of 2008–2009 have triggered a second oil boom, pushing Saudi Arabia's budget surplus to $28 billion (110SR billion) in 2005. Tadawul (the Saudi stock market index) finished 2004 with a massive 76.23% to close at 4437.58 points. Market capitalization was up 110.14% from a year earlier to stand at $157.3 billion (589.93SR billion), which makes it the biggest stock market in the Middle East.‏ HP Pavilion G7-1073NR Laptop Keyboard

OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves." The higher their reserves, the more OPEC allows them to produce.[citation needed] Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels (1.6×1010 m3) between 1987 and 1988.[174] Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak oil).[175] HP Pavilion dv6-3141se Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabia is one of only a few fast-growing countries in the world with a relatively high per capita income of $24,200 (2010). Saudi Arabia will be launching six "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City)[176] which are planned to be completed by 2020. These six new industrialized cities are intended to diversify the economy of Saudi Arabia, and are expected to increase the per capita income. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

The King of Saudi Arabia has announced that the per capita income is forecast to rise from $15,000 in 2006 to $33,500 in 2020.[177] The cities will be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

However the urban areas of Riyadh and Jeddah are expected to contribute $287 billion dollars by the year 2020.[178]

Gold mining is carried out in the Mahd adh Dhahab region (also known as the "Cradle of Gold"). Saudi Arabian stores suffered a significant decrease in Gold sales in 2012.[179] ACER Aspire 2920Z Laptop Keyboard

Reporting of poverty remains a state taboo. In December 2011, days after the Arab Spring uprisings, the Saudi interior ministry detained reporter Feros Boqna and two colleagues and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.[180][181] Statistics on the issue are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue poverty figures.[182] Lenovo 45N2106 Laptop Keyboard

Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous[183] because of the risk of being arrested. Three journalists: Feras Boqna, Hussam al-Drewesh and Khaled al-Rasheed were detained after posting 10-minute film 'Mal3ob 3alena', or 'We are being cheated'[184] on Saudis living in poverty to YouTube.[185] Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis are considered to be poor (2009) and 70% of Saudis do not own their houses.[186] DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

The population of Saudi Arabia as of July 2010 is estimated to be 25,731,776 including 5,576,076 non-nationals[5] In 1950, Saudi Arabia had a population of 3 million.[187] The ethnic composition of Saudi nationals is 90% Arab and 10% Afro-Arab.[188]Until the 1960s, a majority of the population was nomadic; but presently more than 95% of the population is settled, due to rapid economic and urban growth. As recently as the early 1960s, the Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at 300,000.[189] Slavery was officially abolished in 1962.[190][191] SONY VAIO VPCF12AFM Laptop Keyboard

About 31% of the population is made up of foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia.[192] Indian: 1.3 million, Pakistani: 900,000, Egyptian: 900,000, Yemeni: 800,000, Bangladeshi: 500,000, Filipino: 500,000, Jordanian/Palestinian: 260,000,Indonesian: 250,000, Sri Lankan: 350,000, Sudanese: 250,000, Syrian: 100,000 and Turkish: 100,000.[193] There are around 100,000 Westerners in Saudi Arabia, most of whom live in compounds or gated communities. HP 636191-001 Laptop Keyboard

TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991.[194] An estimated 240,000 Palestinians are living in Saudi Arabia. They are not allowed to hold or even apply for Saudi citizenship, because of Arab League instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Palestinians are the sole foreign group that cannot benefit from a 2004 law passed by Saudi Arabia's Council of Ministers, SONY VAIO VGN-FW180FU Laptop Keyboard

which entitles expatriates of all nationalities who have resided in the kingdom for ten years to apply for citizenship with priority being given to holders of degrees in various scientific fields.[195] The Articles 12.4 and 14.1 of the Executive Regulation of Saudi Citizenship System can be interpreted as requiring applicants to be Muslim.[196] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

In a 2011 news story, Arab News reported, "Nearly three million expatriate workers will have to leave the Kingdom in the next few years as the Labor Ministry has put a 20% ceiling on the country's guest workers."[197] DELL INSPIRON 1464 Laptop Keyboard

There are about 25 million people who are Muslim, or 97% of the total population.[199] Data for Saudi Arabia comes primarily from general population surveys, which are less reliable than censuses or large-scale demographic and health surveys for estimating minority-majority ratios.[199] About 85–90% of Saudis are Sunni, while Shias represent around 10–15% of the Muslim population.[200] TOSHIBA NB200-10J Laptop Keyboard

 The official and dominant form of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia is commonly known as Wahhabism (a name which some of its proponents consider derogatory, preferring the term Salafism[201]), founded in the Arabian Peninsula byMuhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the eighteenth century, is often described as 'puritanical', 'intolerant' or 'ultra-conservative'. However, proponents consider that its teachings seek to purify the practise of Islam of any innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and his companions[202] HP Pavilion tx2650eg laptop keyboard

In 2010, the U.S. State Department stated that in Saudi Arabia "freedom of religion is neither recognized nor protected under the law and is severely restricted in practice" and that "government policies continued to place severe restrictions on religious freedom".[203] No faith other than Islam is permitted to be practiced, although there are nearly a million Christians – nearly all foreign workers – in Saudi Arabia.[204] HP 6730S laptop keyboard

There are no churches or other non-Muslim houses of worship permitted in the country.[203] Even private prayer services are forbidden in practice and the Saudi religious police reportedly regularly search the homes of Christians.[204] Foreign workers have to observe Ramadan but are not allowed to celebrate Christmas or Easter.[204] ACER Aspire 9411awsmi ms2195 laptop keyboard

Conversion by Muslims to another religion (apostasy) carries the death penalty, although there have been no confirmed reports of executions for apostasy in recent years.[203] Proselytizing by non-Muslims is illegal,[203] and the last Christian priest was expelled from Saudi Arabia in 1985.[204] There are some Hindus and Buddhists in Saudi Arabia. Compensation in court cases discriminates against non-Muslims: once fault is determined, a Muslim receives all of the amount of compensation determined, a Jew or Christian half, and all others a sixteenth.[204] Compaq Presario CQ42-219AX laptop keyboard

According to Human Rights Watch, the Shia minority face systematic discrimination from the Saudi government in education, the justice system and especially religious freedom.[205] Restrictions are imposed on the public celebration of Shia festivals such as Ashura and on the Shia taking part in communal public worship.[206] According to a 2012 poll, 5% of Saudis are atheists.[207] HP Mini 311-1000NR laptop keyboard

Saudi Arabia has centuries-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab tribal civilization. This culture has been bolstered by the austerely puritanical Wahhabi form of Islam, which arose in the eighteenth century and now predominates in the country. The many limitations on behaviour and dress are strictly enforced both legally and socially. Alcoholic beverages are prohibited, for example, and there is no theatre or public exhibition of films. Nevertheless, as reported by the UK Mail, within the Saudi royal family homosexuality is permitted so long as it is not the subject of public attention (Daily Mail: " Packard Bell NEW90 laptop keyboard

TOSHIBA Satellite L655D-S5067 laptop keyboard

A gay Saudi prince has been jailed for beating and strangling his servant.").[208] However, the Daily Mail and Wikileaks indicate that the Saudi Royal family applies a different moral code to itself ("WikiLeaks cables: Saudi princes throw parties boasting drink, drugs and sex. Royals flout puritanical laws to throw parties for young elite while religious police are forced to turn a blind eye.")[209] Public expression of opinion about domestic political or social matters is discouraged. There are no organizations such as political parties or labour unions to provide public forums. SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

Daily life is dominated by Islamic observance. Five times each day, Muslims are called to prayer from the minarets of mosques scattered throughout the country. Because Friday is the holiest day for Muslims, the weekend begins on Thursday.[64][210] In accordance with Wahhabi doctrine, only two religious holidays are publicly recognized, ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā. Celebration of other Islamic holidays,  HP G71-449WM laptop keyboard

such as the Prophet's birthday and ʿĀshūrāʾ (an important holiday for Shīʿites), are tolerated only when celebrated locally and on a small scale. Public observance of non-Islamic religious holidays is prohibited, with the exception of 23 September, which commemorates the unification of the kingdom.[64] SONY VGN-FE48E laptop keyboard

However, Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to 'shirk' (that is, idolatry). As a consequence, under Saudi rule, the Hejaz cities have suffered from considerable destruction of their physical heritage and, for example, it has been estimated that about 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished.[214TOSHIBA Satellite U305-S2804 laptop keyboard

] These include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter Fatima, and other mosques founded by Abu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first Caliph), Umar (the second Caliph), Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth Caliph), and Salman al-Farsi (another of Muhammad's companions).[215] SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard

Other historic buildings that have been destroyed include the house of Khadijah, the wife of the Prophet, the house of Abu Bakr, now the site of the local Hilton hotel; the house of Ali-Oraid, the grandson of the Prophet, and the Mosque of abu-Qubais, now the location of the King's palace in Mecca.[216] FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 Laptop Keyboard

Critics have described this as "Saudi vandalism" and claim that over the last 50 years 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost.[217] It has been reported that there now are fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.[216] HP 594706-001 Laptop Keyboard

During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the Kingdom and were not considered un-Islamic, although they were seen as contrary to Arab tribal norms.[218] During the Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theaters. However, with King Abdullah's reforms from 2005, some cinemas have re-opened.[219] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. With the advent of oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, HP Pavilion dv6-2044ca Laptop Keyboard

such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the rabābah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). Of the native dances, the most popular is a martial line dance known as the ʿarḍah, which includes lines of men, frequently armed with swords or rifles, dancing to the beat of drums and tambourines. Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is still very popular.[64] DELL Inspiron 1750 Laptop Keyboard

Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several Saudi novelists and poets have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world – albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These include Ghazi Algosaibi, Abdelrahman Munif, Turki al-Hamad and Rajaa al-Sanea.[220][221][222] SAMSUNG X20 Laptop Keyboard

Football (soccer) is the national sport in Saudi Arabia.[citation needed] Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing and basketball are also popular, played by both men and women, with the Saudi Arabian national basketball team winning bronze at the 1999 Asian Championship.[223][224][225] More traditional sports such as camel racing became more popular in the 1970s. A stadium in Riyadh holds races in the winter. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport's most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. Falconry, another traditional pursuit, is still practiced.[64] SAMSUNG NP-Q320-FS01UK Laptop Keyboard

Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding Arab countries in the Persian Gulf, and has been heavily influenced by Turkish, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not consumed and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. A dish consisting of a stuffed lamb, known as khūzī, is the traditional national dish. Kebabs are popular, as is shāwarmā (shawarma), Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. As in other Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, machbūs (kabsa), a rice dish with fish or shrimp, is popular. Flat, unleavened bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates and fresh fruit. Coffee, served in the Turkish style, is the traditional beverage.[64] COMPAQ Presario C500 Laptop Keyboard

HP Pavilion dv4-1220us Laptop Keyboard

TOSHIBA Satellite A300 Laptop Keyboard