May 08th, 2013

Colombo

Colombo (Sinhala: කොළඹ, pronounced [ˈkolombo]; Tamil: கொழும்பு) is the largest city and the commercial, industrial and cultural capital of Sri Lanka. It is located on the west coast of the island and adjacent to Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte suburb or the parliament capital of Sri Lanka. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard

Colombo is also the administrative capital ofWestern Province, Sri Lanka and the district capital of Colombo District. Colombo is often referred to as the capital since Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte is a satellite city of Colombo. HP Pavilion dm1-1010st Laptop Keyboard

Colombo is a busy and vibrant place with a mixture of modern life and colonial buildings and ruins[2] with a population of about 752,993 in the city limits. It was the political capital of Sri Lanka, before Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte. SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

Due to its large harbour and its strategic position along the East-West sea trade routes, Colombo was known to ancient traders 2,000 years ago. It was made the capital of the island when Sri Lanka was ceded to the British Empire in 1815,[3] HP Pavilion dv5-1104tu Laptop Keyboard

and its status as capital was retained when the nation became independent in 1948. In 1978, when administrative functions were moved to Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, Colombo was designated as the commercial capital of Sri Lanka. HP G72-b60US Laptop Keyboard

Like many cities, Colombo's urban area extends well beyond the boundaries of a single local authority, encompassing other municipal and urban councils. The main city is home to a majority of Sri Lanka's corporate offices, restaurants and entertainment venues.[4] Famous landmarks in Colombo include the Galle Face Green, the Viharamahadevi Park, Mount Lavinia beach as well as the National Museum. SONY 147915321 Laptop Keyboard

The name "Colombo", first introduced by the Portuguese in 1505, is believed to be derived from the classical Sinhalesename කොලොන් තොට Kolon thota, meaning "port on the river Kelani".[5] Another belief is that the name is derived from the Sinhalese name කොල-අඹ-තොට Kola-amba-thota which means "Harbour with leafy mango trees".[4] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The author of the oldest Sinhalese grammar, Sidatsangarava, written in the 13th century wrote about a category of words that exclusively belonged to early Sinhalese. It lists naramba (to see) and kolamba (ford or habor) as belonging to anindigenous source. Kolamba is the source of the name of the commercial capital Colombo.[6][7] Lenovo Thinkpad T520 Laptop Keyboard

As Colombo possesses a natural harbour, it was known to Greeks, Persians, Romans, Arabs, and Chinese traders over 2,000 years ago. Traveller Ibn Batuta who visited the island in the 14th century, referred to it as Kalanpu.[8] SONY VAIO VGN-AR170P Laptop Keyboard

 Muslim Moors whose prime interests were trade, began to settle in Colombo around the 8th century AD mostly because the port helped their business and controlled much of the trade between the Sinhalese kingdoms and the outside world. Their descendants now comprise the local Sri Lankan Moor community.[3][9] HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

Portuguese explorers led by Dom Lourenço de Almeida first arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505. During their initial visit they made a treaty with the King of Kotte Parakramabahu VIII (1484–1508) enabling them to trade in the islands' crop of cinnamon, which lay along the coastal areas of the island, TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard

including in Colombo.[10] As part of the treaty, the Portuguese were given full authority over the coastline in exchange for the promise of guarding the coast against invaders. They were allowed to establish a trading post in Colombo.[10] Within a short time, however, they then expelled the Muslim inhabitants of Colombo and began to build a fort there in 1517. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The Portuguese soon realized that control of Sri Lanka was necessary for protection of their coastal establishments in India and they began to manipulate the rulers of the Kotte kingdom to gain control of the area. After skilfully exploiting rivalries within the royal family, they took control of a large area of the kingdom and the Sinhalese King Mayadunne established a new kingdom at Sitawaka, Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

a domain in the Kotte kingdom.[10] Before long he annexed much of the Kotte kingdom and forced the Portuguese to retreat to Colombo, which was repeatedly besieged by Mayadunne and the later kings of Sitawaka, forcing them to seek reinforcement from their major base in Goa, India. Following the fall of the kingdom in 1593, the Portuguese were able to establish complete control over the coastal area, Lenovo 3000 N200 Laptop Keyboard

with Colombo as their capital.[10][11] This part of Colombo is still known as Fort and houses the presidential palace and the majority of Colombo'sfive star hotels. The area immediately outside Fort is known as Pettah (Sinhala පිට කොටුව piṭa koṭuva, "outer fort") and is a commercial hub. TOSHIBA Qosmio F45-AV411 Laptop Keyboard

In 1638 the Dutch signed a treaty with King Rajasinha II of Kandy which assured the king assistance in his war against the Portuguese in exchange for a monopoly of the island's major trade goods. The Portuguese resisted the Dutch and the Kandyans but were gradually defeated in their strongholds beginning in 1639.[12] The Dutch captured Colombo in 1656 after an epic siege, HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

at the end of which a mere 93 Portuguese survivors were given safe conduct out of the fort. Although the Dutch (e.g.,Rijcklof van Goens) initially restored the captured area back to the Sinhalese kings, they later refused to turn them over and gained control over the island's richest cinnamon lands including Colombo which then served as the capital of the Dutch maritime provinces under the control of the Dutch East India Company until 1796.[12][13] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

Although the British captured Colombo in 1796, it remained a British military outpost until the Kandyan Kingdom was ceded to them in 1815 and they made Colombo the capital of their newly created crown colony of British Ceylon. Unlike the Portuguese and Dutch before them, whose primary use of Colombo was as a military fort, the British began constructing houses and other civilian structures around the fort, giving rise to the current City of Colombo.[3] HP 633183-001 Laptop Keyboard

Initially, they placed the administration of the city under a "Collector", and John Macdowell of the Madras Service was the first to hold the office. Then, in 1833, the Government Agent of the Western Province was charged with the administration of the city. Centuries of colonial rule had meant a decline of indigenous administration of Colombo, Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

and in 1865 the British conceived a Municipal Council as a means of training the local population in self-governance. The Legislative Council of Ceylon constituted the Colombo Municipal Council in 1865 and the Council met for the first time on the January 16, 1866. At the time, the population of the region was around 80,000.[3] Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

During the time they were in control of the Colombo, the British were responsible for much of the planning of the present city. In some parts of the city tramcar tracks and granite flooring laid during the era are still visible today.[13][14] TOSHIBA 9J.N9282.W01 laptop keyboard

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This era of colonialism ended peacefully in 1948 when Ceylon gained independence from Britain.[15] Due to the tremendous impact this caused on the city's inhabitants and on the country as a whole, the changes that resulted at the end of the colonial period were drastic. An entire new culture took root. SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard

Changes in laws and customs, clothing styles, religions andproper names were a significant result of the colonial era.[15] These cultural changes were followed by the strengthening of the island's economy. Even today, the influence of the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British is clearly visible in Colombo's architecture, names, clothing, food, language and attitudes. HP Mini 110-3504tu laptop keyboard

Buildings from all three eras stand as reminders of the turbulent past of Colombo. The city and its people show an interesting mix of European clothing and lifestyles together with local customs.[15] HP Pavilion dv6-2010ep laptop keyboard

Historically, Colombo referred to the area around the Fort and Pettah Market which is famous for the variety of products available as well as the Khan Clock Tower, a local landmark. At present, it refers to the city limits of the Colombo Municipal Council.[16] More often, the name is used for the Conurbation known as Greater Colombo, which encompasses severalMunicipal councils including Kotte, Dehiwela and Colombo. Lenovo 04W2236 laptop keyboard

Although Colombo lost its status as the capital of Sri Lanka in the 1980s, it continues to be the island's commercial centre. Despite the official capital of Sri Lanka moving to the adjacent Sri Jayawardanapura Kotte, most countries still maintain their diplomatic missions in Colombo.[17] ASUS F81 laptop keyboard

Colombo's geography is a mix of land and water. The city has many canals and, in the heart of the city, the 65-hectare (160-acre) Beira Lake.[18] The lake is one of the most distinctive landmarks of Colombo, and was used for centuries by colonists to defend the city.[18] COMPAQ 442887-001 laptop keyboard

It remains a popular attraction, hosting regattas,[19] and theatrical events on its shores. The Northern and North-Eastern border of the city of Colombo is formed by the Kelani River, which meets the sea in a part of the city known as the Modera (mōdara in Sinhala) which means river delta. DELL Inspiron N4050 laptop keyboard

Colombo features a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification. Colombo's climate is fairly temperate all throughout the year. From March to April the temperature averages around 31 degrees Celsius (88 degrees Fahrenheit) maximum.[20] The only major change in the Colombo weather occurs during the monsoon seasons from May to August and October to January. HP Pavilion dv5-1133la laptop keyboard

This is the time of year where heavy rains can be expected. Colombo sees little relative diurnal range of temperature, although this is more marked in the drier winter months, where minimum temperatures average 22 degrees Celsius (72 degrees Fahrenheit). Rainfall in the city averages around 2,400 millimetres (94 in) a year.[21] SONY Vaio VGN-FW290N laptop keyboard

Colombo's geography is a mix of land and water. The city has many canals and, in the heart of the city, the 65-hectare (160-acre) Beira Lake.[18] The lake is one of the most distinctive landmarks of Colombo, and was used for centuries by colonists to defend the city.[18] It remains a popular attraction, hosting regattas,[19] and theatrical events on its shores. HP Pavilion dv3-2310ea laptop keyboard

The Northern and North-Eastern border of the city of Colombo is formed by the Kelani River, which meets the sea in a part of the city known as the Modera (mōdara in Sinhala) which means river delta. SONY VAIO VGN-FS965F laptop keyboard

Colombo features a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification. Colombo's climate is fairly temperate all throughout the year. From March to April the temperature averages around 31 degrees Celsius (88 degrees Fahrenheit) maximum.[20] Lenovo Ideapad G565 laptop keyboard

 The only major change in the Colombo weather occurs during the monsoon seasons from May to August and October to January. This is the time of year where heavy rains can be expected. Colombo sees little relative diurnal range of temperature, although this is more marked in the drier winter months, Compaq Presario CQ71-230SA laptop keyboard

where minimum temperatures average 22 degrees Celsius (72 degrees Fahrenheit). Rainfall in the city averages around 2,400 millimetres (94 in) a year.[21] Compaq Presario CQ42-205AU laptop keyboard

Colombo is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural city. The population of Colombo is a mix of numerous ethnic groups, mainlySinhalese, Sri Lankan Moors and Tamils. There are also small communities of people with Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, Malay andIndian origins living in the city, HP Pavilion dm1-1010ef laptop keyboard

as well as numerous European expatriates. Colombo is the most populous city in Sri Lanka, with 642,163 people living within the city limits.[25] In 1866 the city had a population of around 80,000.[26] According to the census of 2001 the demographics of urban Colombo by ethnicity is as follows.[25] ACER ZU2 Laptop Keyboard

Colombo is a charter city, with a Mayor Council form of government. Colombo's mayor and the council members are elected through local government elections held once in five years. For the past 50 years the city had been ruled by the United National Party (UNP), a rightleaning party, Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

whose business friendly policies resonate with the population of Colombo. However the UNP nomination list for the 2006 Municipal elections was rejected,[27] and an Independent Group supported by the UNP won the elections.[28] Uvais Mohamed Imitiyas was subsequently appointed Mayor of Colombo.[29] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

The city government provides sewer, road management and waste management services, in case of water, electricity and telephone utility services the council liaises with the water supply and drainage board, the Ceylon electricity board and telephone service providers. HP Pavilion dv6-2112sa Laptop Keyboard

Colombo was the capital of the coastal areas controlled by the Portuguese, Dutch and the British from the 1700s to the 1815 when the British gained control of the entire island following the Kandian convention. From then until the 1980s the national capital of the island was Colombo. HP Pavilion dv4-1225ee Laptop Keyboard

During the 1980s plans were made to move the administrative capital to Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte and thus move all governmental institutions out of Colombo to make way for commercial activities. As a primary step theParliament was moved to a new complex in Kotte and several ministries and departments were also moved. HP Mini 110-3006tu Laptop Keyboard

However the move was never completed. Today many governmental institutions still remain in Colombo. These include the President's House, Presidential Secretariat, Prime Minister's House (Temple Trees), Prime Minister's Office, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

Central Bank of Sri Lanka, important government ministries and departments; such as Finance (Treasury),Defence, Public Administration & Home affairs, Foreign affairs, Justice and the Military headquarters, Naval headquarters (SLNS Parakrama), Air Force headquarters (SLAF Colombo) and Police national and field force headquarters.[31][32] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The great majority of Sri Lankan corporations have their head offices in Colombo including Ceylinco Corporation, Stassen group of companies, John Keells Holdings, Hemas Holdings and Akbar Brothers. Some of the industries include chemicals, textiles, glass, cement, leather goods, furniture, and jewellery. In the city centre is located The World Trade Centre. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

The 40 story Twin Tower complex is the centre of important commercial establishments, situated in the Fort district, the city's nerve center. Right outside the Fort area is Pettah which is derived from the Sinhalese word pita which means out or outsideas it is outside the Fort.[33] HP Pavilion dv7-4169wm Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

The Colombo Metropolitan area has a GDP of $35 Billion dollars making it the core of the Sri Lankan economy. The per capita income of Colombo Metro area stood at USD $5358 and purchasing power per capita of $10,000, making it one of the most prosperous regions in South Asia.[34]  GATEWAY M-6846 Laptop Keyboard

The Colombo Metropolitan (CM) area is the most important industrial, commercial and administrative centre in Sri Lanka. A major share of the country’s export oriented manufacturing takes place in the Colombo Metropolitan area which is the engine of growth for Sri Lanka. HP 317443-001 Laptop Keyboard

The Western province contributes more than 50% to the GDP and about 80% of industrial value additions although it accounts for only 5.7% of the country’s geographic area. Given its importance as the primary international gateway for Sri Lanka and as the main economic driver of the country, TOSHIBA 6037B0017206 Laptop Keyboard

the Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL) has launched an ambitious program to transform Colombo and its metropolitan area into a metropolis of international standards. A number of bottlenecks are preventing the Colombo metropolitan area from realizing its full economic potential. SONY NSK-S8101 Laptop Keyboard

In order to facilitate the transformation of Colombo, the government has to address these bottlenecks which have for long been obstructing economic and physical urban regeneration of the city.[35] SONY VAIO PCG-F16/BP Laptop Keyboard

Pettah is more crowded than the fort area. Pettah's roads are always packed and pavements are full of small stalls selling from delicious Sherbat to Shirts. Main Street consists mostly of clothes shops and the cross roads, which are literally known as Cross Streets where each of the five streets specializes in a specific business. SONY VAIO VGN-NW250D/W Laptop Keyboard

Most of these businesses in Pettah are dominated by Muslim traders. At the end of the main street further away from Fort is the Sea Street, Sri Lanka's Gold market – dominated by Tamil interests. This mile-long street is full of jewellery shops.[33]

At one time Air Lanka (now SriLankan Airlines) had its head office in Colombo.[36] SONY Vaio PCG-K315M laptop keyboard

The Sri Lanka Police the main law enforcement agency of the island liaise with the municipal council, but is under the control of the Ministry of Defence of the central government.[37] HP Pavilion dv6-2163sl laptop keyboard

Policing in Colombo and its suburbs falls within theMetropolitan Range headed by the Deputy Inspector General of Police (Metropolitan), this also includes the Colombo Crime Division.[38] As with most Sri Lankan cities, the magistrate court handles felony crimes, the district court handles civil cases. SONY VAIO PCG-792L laptop keyboard

As in other large cities around the world, Colombo experiences certain levels of street crime and bribery. Indeed the corruption extends to the very top, with the Sri Lankan president himself, US reports show.  FUJITSU Lifebook S6240 laptop keyboard

 [39][40] The LTTE has been linked to most of the bombings and assassinations in the city.[41] Welikada Prison is situated in Colombo and it is one of the largest maximum-security prisons in the country.[42] HP Mini 210 laptop keyboard

Colombo Harbour is the largest and one of the busiest ports in Sri Lanka. Colombo was established primarily as a port city during the colonial era, with an artificial harbour that has been expanded over the years. The Sri Lanka Navy maintains a naval base, SLNS Rangalla, within the harbour. Acer eMachines G730G laptop keyboard

The Port of Colombo handled 3.75 million twenty-foot equivalent units in 2008, 10.6% up on 2007 (which itself was 9.7% up on 2006), bucking the global economic trend. Of those, 817,000 were local shipments with the rest transshipments. The port is close to its capacity for container handling. An expansion project, the South Harbour project, will increase the port's capacity.[44] FUJITSU Lifebook P1510 laptop keyboard

Colombo has most of the amenities that a modern city has. Compared to other parts of the country, Colombo has the highest degree of infrastructure. Electricity, water and transport to street lamps, COMPAQ Presario CQ60-209TU laptop keyboard

phone booths and etc. have a considerably good standard. The majority of the major shopping malls in Sri Lanka are in the city, of which all are wi-fi enabled. Apart from that, many luxurious hotels, clubs and restaurants are in the city. In recent times there's been an outpour ofhigh rise condominiums, mainly due to the very high land prices.[43] SONY VAIO VGN-CR13/B laptop keyboard

Colombo has an extensive public transport system based on buses operated both by private operators and the government owned Sri Lanka Transport Board (SLTB). The three primary bus terminals — Bastian Mawatha, Central, and the Gunasinghapura Bus Terminal — are in Pettah. Bastian Mawatha handles long distance services whereas Gunasinghapura and Central handle local services.  Dell Inspiron 2500 Laptop Keyboard

Train transport in the city is limited since most trains are meant for transport to and from the city rather than within it and are often overcrowded. However, the Central Bus Stand and Fort Railway Station function as the island's primary hub for bus and rail transport respectively. HP 605344-001 Laptop Keyboard

Up until the 1970s the city had tram services, which were discontinued. Other means of transport includes auto rickshaws (commonly called "three wheelers") and taxicabs. Three wheelers are entirely operated by individuals and hardly regulated whilst cab services are run by private companies and are metered. ACER NSK-AEA1D Laptop Keyboard

Construction of the Colombo Metro Rail, a Mass Rapid Transit railway system, similar to that of other advanced Asian cities has begun. The project was established to control the excessive traffic. The project is carried out by NEB Rapid Infrastructure Projects Pvt. Ltd., an Indian and Singaporean collaboration.[45][46] SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

Post-war development in the Colombo area also involves the construction of numerous expressway grade arterial road routes. The first of these constructed is the Southern Expressway, which goes from Kottawa, HP 597635-001 Laptop Keyboard

a southern suburb of Colombo, to Matara in the south of the country. Expressways under construction in the Colombo metropolitan area include the Colombo–Katunayake Expresswaywhich is due to be opened at the end of 2012 and the Colombo orbital bypass Arthur C. Clarke Expressway which is due to be opened in 2014.[47][48] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

The two World Trade Centre towers used to be the most recognized landmarks of the city. Before they were completed in 1997, the adjacent Bank of Ceylon tower was the tallest structure and the most prominent city landmark. Before the skyscrapers were built it was the Old Parliament Building that stood majestically in the Fort district with the Old Colombo Lighthouse close to it. Another important landmark is the Independence Hall at Independence Square in Cinnamon Gardens. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

 Even before the parliament was built some claim that the Jami Ul-Alfar Mosque was recognized as the landmark of Colombo bysailors approaching the port. The mosque is still one of the most visited tourist sites in Colombo. TOSHIBA Mini NB 505-SP0160 Laptop Keyboard

 Another landmark is St.Paul's Church Milagiriya, one of the oldest churches in Sri Lanka, first built by the Portuguese and re-built by the British in 1848.

The Fort district has the famous Cargills & Millers complex that is protected by a special government law from demolition. This is done mainly to preserve the historic beauty of the Fort area. TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

The Galle Face Green is the city's largest and most elegant promenade. Lined with palm trees and adjacent to the coast, this mile-long stretch in the heart of the city is a constant beehive of activity. Compaq Presario CQ42-228LA Laptop Keyboard

The green is especially busy on Fridays and Saturdays. In the evenings it plays host to families and children playing sports and flying kites, lovers embracing under umbrellas and health enthusiasts taking their evening walks. There are numerous small food stalls and a small stretch of beach. SAMSUNG R522 Laptop Keyboard

The green was recently[when?]given a makeover and since then has been even more popular with the local community. The Green frequently hosts international and local concerts and performances, such as the recently concluded World Drum Festival. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Cannons that were once mounted on the rampart of the old fort of Colombo laid out for observance and prestige at the Green, giving a colonial touch to the city. SONY Vaio PCG-K35 Laptop Keyboard

The hotel has played host to distinguished guests including the British Royal Family and other royal guests and celebrities. After a stayed at the hotel, Princess Alexandra of Denmark commented that "the peacefulness and generosity encountered at the Galle Face Hotel cannot be matched."[51] TOSHIBA Satellite L750-ST4N02 Laptop Keyboard

Also facing Galle Face Green is the Ceylon Inter-Continental Hotel, Sri Lanka's firstfive-star hotel. Around the corner from Galle Face are prominent coffee bars, chic bars and boutiques. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

Education 

Education institutions in Colombo have a long history. Colombo has many of the prominent public schools in the country, some of them government-owned and others private. Most of the prominent schools in the city date back to the 1800s when they were established during the British colonial rule,[52] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

such as the Royal College Colombo (1835). Certain urban schools of Sri Lanka have some religious alignment; this is partly due to the influence of British who established Christian missionary schools.[53][54] These include the Anglican, Bishop's College(1875); the Buddhist, Ananda College (1886); HP 599572-001 Laptop Keyboard

the Muslim, Zahira College (1892); the Catholic, St. Joseph's College (1896). The religious alignments do not affect the curriculum of the school except for the demographics of the student population.[53] ACER Aspire 5610Z Laptop Keyboard

Colombo has many prominent International Schools and the students studying in these schools sit for Edexcel and Cambridge examinations and thousands of students from International schools are studying in the USA, HP G42-364LA Laptop Keyboard

UK, Australia and Canada. Top International schools include: Colombo International school, Asian International School, Wycherley International School, Elizabeth Moir International School, Lyceum International School, Gateway College, Ilma International School and several other International schools. HP 636191-001 Laptop Keyboard

Higher education in the city has a long history, beginning with the establishment of the Colombo Medical College (1870), the Colombo Law College (1875), School of Agriculture (1884) and the Government Technical College (1893). SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard

The first step in the creation of a University in Colombo was taken in 1913 with the establishment of the University College Colombo which prepared students for the external examinations of the University of London. This was followed by the establishment of the University of Ceylon in Colombo.[55] HP Envy 15 Laptop Keyboard

 Today the University of Colombo and the University of the Visual & Performing Arts are state universities in the city. The Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology has a metropolitan campus in the city centre. There are several private higher education institutions in the city. Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

Colombo has wildly varying architecture that span centuries and depict many styles. Colonial buildings influenced by the Portuguese,Dutch and British exist alongside structures built in Buddhist, Hindu, Islamic, Indian and Contemporary architectural styles. No other place is this more evident in the Fort area. Here one may find new towering skyscrapers as well as historic buildings dating far back as the 1700s.[56][57] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

There are none of the buildings of the Portuguese era and only a few from the Dutch period. These include the oldest building in the fort area, the former Dutch Hospital, the Dutch House which is now the Colombo Dutch Museum and several churches.  Packard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

ThePresident's House (formerly the Queen's House)was originally the Dutch governor's house, and successive British governors made it their office and residence. However, it has undergone much change since the Dutch period. Adjoining the President's House are the Gordon Gardens, now off limits to the public.[56][57][58] Packard Bell Easynote TM81 laptop keyboard

The Portuguese were the first colonists to settle in Colombo; establishing a small trading post, they had laid the foundations for a small fort which in time became the largest colonial fort in the island. The Dutch expanded the fort thus creating a well old fortified harbour. SONY VAIO PCG-FRV25 Laptop Keyboard

This came into the possession of the British in the late 1700s and by the late 19th century the seeing no threat to theColombo Harbour, began demolishing the ramparts to make way for the development of the city. Although now there is nothing left of the fortifications, the area which was once the fort is still referred to as Fort. The area outside is Pettah or pita-koutuwa in Sinhalese which means outer fort.[56][57] HP Pavilion dv6-3192sf Laptop Keyboard

Much of the old buildings of the fort area and in other parts of the city date back to the British times, these include governmental, commercial buildings and private houses. Some of the notable government building of British colonial architecture includes; the old Parliament building which is now the Presidential Secretariat, the Republic Building which houses the Ministry of Foreign affairs, DELL Latitude D830 Laptop Keyboard

but once housed the Ceylon Legislative council, the General Treasury Building, the old General Post Office an Edwardian style building opposite the President's House, the Prime Minister's Office, the Central Telegraph Office, the Mathematics department of the University of Colombo (formally the Royal College, Colombo).[59] Notable commercial buildings of the British era include the Galle Face Hotel, Cargills & Millers' complex, and Grand Oriental Hotel.[56][57] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

Colombo's most beautiful festival is the celebration of Buddha's birth, enlightenment and death all falling on the same day.[60] In Sinhala this is known as Vesak.[60] During this festival, much of the city is decorated with lanterns, lights and special displays of light (known as thoran). The festival falls in mid May and lasts a week. Many Sri Lankans visit the city to see the lantern competitions and decorations. HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

During this week people distribute, rice, drinks and other food items for free in dunsal which means charity place. These dunsal are popular amongst visitors from the suburbs. SONY VGN-FE41M Laptop Keyboard

Since there is a large number of Muslims in Colombo. Eid Ul Fitr and Eid Ul Adha are two Islamic festivals that are celebrated in Colombo. Many businesses flourish during the eventual countdown for Eid Ul Fitr which is a major Islamic festival celebrated by Muslims after a month long fasting. Colombo is generally very busy during the eve of the festivals as people do their last minute shopping.  IBM Thinkpad Z61m laptop keyboard

Christmas is another major festival. Although Sri Lanka's Christians make up only just over 7% of the population, Christmas is one of the island's biggest festivals. Most streets and commercial buildings light up from the beginning of December and festive sales begin at all shopping centres and department stores. Caroling and nativity plays are frequent sights during the season. Packard Bell Easynote LM85 laptop keyboard

The Sinhala and Hindu Aluth Awurudda' is a cultural event that takes place on 13 and 14 April. This is the celebration of the Sinhala and Hindu new year. The festivities include many events and traditions that display a great deal of Sri Lankan culture. SONY VAIO VGN-NR32Z/T laptop keyboard

Several old clubs of the city gives a glimpse of the British equestrian life style, these include the Colombo Club, Orient Club, the 80 Club, the Colombo Cricket Club. Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

Colombo has several performing arts centers which are popular for their musical and theatrical performances. The most famous performing arts centers are the Lionel Wendt Theatre, the Elphinstone, and Tower Hall, all of which have a very rich history and made for western style productions. The Navarangahala found in the city is the country's first national theatre designed and build for Asian and local style musical and theatrical productions. Lenovo 0A62075 laptop keyboard

The Nelum Pokuna Performing Arts Theatre is a world-class theatre that opened in December 2011.[61] Designed in the form of the Lotus Pond in Polonnaruwa, the theatre is a major theatre destination.[62][63] TOSHIBA Satellite L755D-S5162 laptop keyboard

The National Museum of Colombo, established on 1 January 1877 during the tenure of the British Colonial Governor Sir William Henry Gregory, is in the Cinnamon Gardens area.[64] The museum houses the crown jewels and throne of the last king of the kingdom of Kandy, Sri Vikrama Rajasinha.[64] Lenovo 45N2240 laptop keyboard

There is also the Colombo Dutch Museum detailing the Dutch colonial history of the country. Colombo does not boast a very big art gallery. There is a small collection of Sri Lankan SONY VGN-FE31Z laptop keyboard

Undoubtedly the most popular sport in Sri Lanka is cricket. The country emerged as champions of the 1996 Cricket World Cupand became runners up in 2007 and 2011. In the ICC World Twenty20 2009 they became runners up again. The sport is played in parks, playgrounds, HP Pavilion DV7-2177cl laptop keyboard

beaches and even in the streets. Colombo is the home for two of the country's most popular international cricket stadiums, Sinhalese Sports Club's cricket stadium and R. Premadasa Stadium (named after late president Premadasa). HP Pavilion DV6-1040ej laptop keyboard

Colombo has the distinction of being the only city in the world to have four cricket test venues in the past: Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium, Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo Cricket Club Ground and Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium. TheSugathadasa Stadium is an international standard stadium for athletics, SONY VAIO VGN-AR820E laptop keyboard

 swimming and football, also held the South Asian Games in 1991 and 2006. Situated in Colombo the Royal Colombo Golf Club is one of the oldest in Asia. Other sporting clubs in Colombo include Colombo Swimming Club, Colombo Rowing Club and the Yachting Association of Sri Lanka. SONY VAIO VGN-AR820E laptop keyboard

Rugby is also a popular sport at the club and school level. Colombo has its own local football team Colombo FC and the sport is being developed as a part of the FIFA Goal program. SONY 148084122 Laptop Keyboard

The Colombo Port City is to include a new Formula One track, constructed in the vicinity of the Colombo Harbour. According to Dr. Priyath Wickrama, the Chairman of the Sri Lanka Ports Authority, says an eight lane F1 track will “definitely” be a part of the New Port City.This would host The Sri Lankan Grand Prix. IBM Lenovo Thinkpad X201 Laptop Keyboard

Almost all major media businesses in Sri Lanka operate from Colombo. The state media has its offices in Bullers Road and carry out regional transmission from there: this includes the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC), Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

formerly known as Radio Ceylon and the Sri Lanka Rupavahini Corporation. The SLBC is the oldest radio station in South Asia and the second oldest in the world. Many of the private broadcasting companies have their offices and transmission stations in or around Colombo. HP 519265-001 Laptop Keyboard

A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo. Allowing goods to reach distant markets, a single trade route contains long distance arteries, which may further be connected to smaller networks of commercial and noncommercial transportation routes. Among notable trade routes was the Amber Road, SAMSUNG X20 Laptop Keyboard

which served as a dependable network for long-distance trade.[1] Maritime trade along the Spice Route became prominent during the Middle Ages, when nations resorted to military means for control of this influential route.[2] During the Middle Ages, organizations such as the Hanseatic League, aimed at protecting interests of the merchants, and trade became increasingly prominent.[3] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In modern times, commercial activity shifted from the major trade routes of the Old World to newer routes between modern nation-states. This activity was sometimes carried out without traditional protection of trade and under international free-tradeagreements, which allowed commercial goods to cross borders with relaxed restrictions.[4] HP G62-470CA Laptop Keyboard

 Innovative transportation of modern times includes pipeline transport and the relatively well-known trade involving rail routes, automobiles, and cargo airlines. TOSHIBA Satellite L655-S5160 Laptop Keyboard

Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the manipulation of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.[11] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

South Asia had multiple maritime trade routes which connected it to Southeast Asia, thereby making the control of one route resulting in maritime monopoly difficult.[11] Indian connections to various Southeast Asian states buffered it from blockages on other routes.[11] COMPAQ Presario CQ41-204TX Laptop Keyboard

By making use of the maritime trade routes, bulk commodity trade became possible for the Romans in the 2nd century BCE.[13]A Roman trading vessel could span the Mediterranean in a month at one-sixtieth the cost of over-land routes.[14] Lenovo 3000 Y500 Laptop Keyboard

The peninsula of Anatolia lay on the commercial land routes to Europe from Asia as well as the sea route from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea.[15] Records from the 19th century BCE attest to the existence of an Assyrianmerchant colony at Kanesh in Cappadocia (now in modern Turkey).[15] DELL NSK-D8001 Laptop Keyboard

Trading networks of the Old World included theGrand Trunk Road of India and the Incense Road of Arabia.[5] A transportation network consisting of hard-surfaced highways, HP G62-225DX Laptop Keyboard

using concrete made from volcanic ash and lime, was built by the Romans as early as 312 BCE, during the times of the Censor Appius Claudius Caecus.[16] Parts of the Mediterranean world, Roman Britain, Tigris-Euphratesriver system and North Africa fell under the reach of this network at some point of their history.[16] Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

According to Robert Allen Denemark (2000):[17]

"The spread of urban trading networks, and their extension along the Persian Gulf and eastern Mediterranean, created a complex molecular structure of regional foci so that as well as the zonation of core and periphery (originally created around Mesopotamia) there was a series of interacting civilizations: Mesopotamia, HP Probook 4510S Laptop Keyboard

Egypt, the Indus Valley; then also Syria, central Anatolia (Hittites) and the Aegean (Minoans and Mycenaeans). Beyond this was a margin which included not only temperate areas such as Europe, HP Pavilion dv3-2108tu Laptop Keyboard

but the dry steppe corridor of central Asia. This was truly a world system, even though it occupied only a restricted portion of the western Old World. Whilst each civilization emphasized its ideological autonomy, all were identifiably part of a common world of interacting components." TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

These routes - spreading religion, trade and technology - have historically been vital to the growth of urban civilization.[18] The extent of development of cities, and the level of their integration into a larger world system, has often been attributed to their position in various active transport networks.[19] TOSHIBA Satellite L300 Laptop Keyboard

The Incense Route served as a channel for trading of Indian, Arabian and East Asian goods.[20] The incense trade flourished from South Arabia to the Mediterranean between roughly the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.[21] This trade was crucial to the economy of Yemen and the frankincense and myrrh trees were seen as a source of wealth by the its rulers.[22] SONY VAIO VGN-CS31Z/Q laptop keyboard

Ptolemy II Philadelphus, emperor of Ptolemaic Egypt, may have forged an alliance with the Lihyanites in order to secure the incense route at Dedan, thereby rerouting the incense trade from Dedan to the coast along the Red Sea to Egypt.[23]IPackard Bell PEW91 laptop keyboard

. E. S. Edwards connects the Syro-Ephraimite War to the desire of the Israelites and the Aramaeans to control the northern end of the Incense route, which ran up from Southern Arabia and could be tapped by commanding Transjordan.[24] TOSHIBA V000120280 laptop keyboard

Gerrha - inhabited by Chaldean exiles from Babylon - controlled the Incense trade routes across Arabia to the Mediterranean and exercised control over the trading of aromatics to Babylon in the 1st century BC.[25] The Nabateansexercised control over the routes along the Incense Route, and their hold was challenged - without success - byAntigonus Cyclops, emperor of Syria.[26] The Nabatean control over trade further increased and spread in many directions.[26] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 laptop keyboard

The replacement of Greece by the Roman empire as the administrator of the Mediterranean basin led to the resumption of direct trade with the East and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of the south.[27]According to Milo Kearney (2003) " HP Pavilion dv6171CL laptop keyboard

The South Arabs in protest took to pirate attacks over the Roman ships in the Gulf of Aden. In response, the Romans destroyed Aden and favored the Western Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea."[28] Indian ships sailed to Egypt as the maritime routes of Southern Asia were not under the control of a single power.[27] SONY VAIO VPCF121GX laptop keyboard

Some similarities between the Mesoamerican and the Andean cultures suggest that the two regions became a part of a wider world system, as a result of trade, by the 1st millennium BCE.[29] The current academic view is that the flow of goods across the Andean slopes was controlled by institutions distributing locations to local groups, who were then free to access them for trading.[30] HP Pavilion DV7-3085dx laptop keyboard

HP Pavilion DV7-3186cl laptop keyboard

This trade across the Andean slopes - described sometimes as "vertical trade" - may have overshadowed the long distance trade between the people of the Andes and the neighboring forests.[30] The Callawaya herbalists traded in tropical plants between 6th and the 10th centuries, while copper was dealt by specialized merchants in the Peruvian valley of Chincha.[30] Long distance trade may have seen local elites resorting to struggle in order for manipulation and control.[30] SONY VAIO VGN-NW70JB laptop keyboard

Prior to the Inca dominance, specialized long distance merchants provided the highlanders with goods such as gold nuggets, copper hatches, cocoa, salt etc. for redistribution among the locals, and were key players in the politics of the region.[31] Hatchet shaped copper currency was produced by the Peruvian people, in order to obtain valuables from pre Columbian Ecuador.[31] SONY VAIO PCG-FX90G/K laptop keyboard

A maritime exchange system stretched from the west coast of Mexico to southernmost Peru, trading mostly in Spondylus, which represented rain and fertility and was considered the principal food of the gods by the people of the Inca empire.[31] Spondylus was used in elite rituals, and the effective redistribution of it had political effect in the Andes during the pre-Hispanic times.[31] Compaq Presario CQ56-110US laptop keyboard

Cultural interactions patronized often by powerful emperors, such as Kanishka, led to development of art due to introduction of a rich variety of influences.[32] Buddhist missions thrived along the Silk Roads, partly due to the conducive intermixing of trade and cultural values, Lenovo 39T7385 laptop keyboard

which created a series of safe stoppages for both the pilgrims and the traders.[33] Among the frequented routes of the Silk Route was the Burmese route extending from Bhamo, which served as a path for Marco Polo's visit to Yunnan and Indian Buddhist missions to Canton in order to establish Buddhist monasteries.[34] This route - often under the presence of hostile tribes - also finds mention in the works of Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.[34] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-SP6001L laptop keyboard

The Grand Trunk Road - connecting Calcutta in India to Peshawar in Pakistan - has existed for over two and a halfmillennia.[35] One of the important trade routes of the world, this road has been a strategic artery with fortresses, halting posts, wells, post offices, milestones and other facilities.[35] Part of this road through Pakistan also coincided with the Silk Road.[35] SONY VAIO VGN-FS415E laptop keyboard

This highway has been associated with emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Sher Shah Suri, the latter became synonymous with this route due to his role in ensuring the safety of the travelers and the upkeep of the road.[36] Emperor Sher Shah widened and realigned the road to other routes, and provided approximately 1700 roadside inns through his empire.[36]These inns provided free food and lodgings to the travelers regardless of their status.[36] DELL Precision M4500 Laptop Keyboard

The British occupation of this road was of special significance for the British Raj in India.[37] Bridges, pathways and newer inns were constructed by the British for the first thirty-seven years of their reign since the occupation ofPunjab in 1849.[37] The British followed roughly the same alignment as the old routes, and at some places the newer routes ran parallel to the older routes.[37] HP G72-a10SV Laptop Keyboard

The Amber Road was a European trade route associated with the trade and transport of amber.[1] Amber satisfied the criteria for long distance trade as it was light in weight and was in high demand for ornamental purposes around the Mediterranean.[1] Before the establishment of Roman control over areas such asPannonia, the Amber Road was virtually the only route available for long distance trade.[1] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Towns along the Amber Road began to rise steadily during the 1st century AD, despite the troop movements under Titus Flavius Vespasianus and his son Titus Flavius Domitianus.[39] Under the reign of Tiberius Caesar Augustus, the Amber Road was straightened and paved according to the prevailing urban standards.[40]Roman towns began to appear along the road, initially founded near the site of Celtic oppida.[40] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

The 3rd century saw the Danube river become the principal artery of trade, eclipsing the Amber Road and other commercial routes.[1] The redirection of investment to the Danubian forts saw the towns along the Amber Road growing slowly, though yet retaining their prosperity.[41] The prolonged struggle between the Romans and the barbarians further left its mark on the towns along the Amber Road.[42] SONY KFRMBA151B Laptop Keyboard

Via Maris, literally Latin for "the way of the sea,"[43] was an ancient highway used by the Romans and the Crusaders.[44]The states controlling the Via Maris were in a position to grant access for trade to their own citizens and collect tolls from the outsiders to maintain the trade route.[45] SONY VAIO VGN-C2S Series Laptop Keyboard

The name Via Maris is a Latin translation of a Hebrew phrase related to Isaiah.[44] Due to the biblical significance of this ancient route, many attempts to find its present-day location have been made by Christian pilgrims.[44] 13th century traveler and pilgrim Burchard of Mount Zion refers to the Via Maris route as a way leading along the shore of the Sea of Galilee.[44] HP Pavilion G6-1223TX Laptop Keyboard

Early Muslim writings confirm that the people of West Africa operated a sophisticated network of trade, usually under the authority of a monarch who levied taxes and provided bureaucratic and military support to his kingdom.[47]Sophisticated mechanisms for the economic and political development of the involved African areas were in place beforeIslam further strengthened trade, towns and government in western Africa.[47] HP Compaq NC8430 Laptop Keyboard

The capital, court and trade of the region find mention in the works of scholar Abū 'Ubayd 'Abd Allāh al-Bakrī; the mainstay of the trans Saharan trade was gold and salt.[47] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

The powerful Saharan tribes, Berber in origin and later adapting to Muslim and Arab cultures, controlled the channels to western Africa by making efficient use of horse-drawn vehicles and pack animals.[47] The Songhai engaged in a struggle against the Sa'di dynasty of Morocco over the control of the trans Saharan trade, resulting in damage on both sides and a weak Moroccan victory, further strengthening the uninvolved Saharan tribes.[47] TOSHIBA Satellite L755-SP5102CL Laptop Keyboard

Struggles and disturbances continued till the 14th century, by which the Mandé merchants were trading with the Hausa, between Lake Chad and the Niger.[47]Newer trade routes developed following extension of trade.[47] DELL Latitude D620 Laptop Keyboard

The Ptolemaic dynasty had initiated Greco-Roman maritime trade contact with India using the Red Sea ports.[48] The Roman historian Strabo mentions a vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt, indicating that monsoon was known and manipulated for trade in his time.[49] By the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India,[50] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

 trading in a diverse variety of goods.[51] Arsinoe,[52] Berenice Troglodytica and Myos Hormos were the principal Roman ports involved in this maritime trading network,[53] while the Indian ports includedBarbaricum, Barygaza, Muziris and Arikamedu.[51] ACER Aspire 5810T-8929 Laptop Keyboard

The Indians were present in Alexandria[54] and the Christian and Jewish settlers from Rome continued to live in India long after the fall of the Roman empire,[55] which resulted in Rome's loss of the Red Sea ports,[56] previously used to secure trade with India by the Greco-Roman world since the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty.[52] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Shortly before the 12th century the Germans played a relatively modest role in the north European trade.[57] However, this was to change with the development of Hanseatic trade, as a result of which German traders became prominent in theBaltic and the North Sea regions.[58] Following the death of Eric VI of Denmark, ACER Aspire 5740 Laptop Keyboard

German forces attacked and sacked Denmark, bringing with them artisans and merchants under the new administration which controlled the Hansa regions.[59]During the third quarter of the 14th century the Hanseatic trade faced two major difficulties: economic conflict with the Flanders and hostilities with Denmark.[3] Lenovo ThinkPad Edge E520 Laptop Keyboard

These events led to the formation of an organized association of Hanseatic towns, which replaced the earlier union of German merchants.[3] This new Hansa of the towns, aimed at protecting interests of the merchants and trade, was prominent for the next hundred and fifty years.[3] FUJITSU Lifebook E8110 Laptop Keyboard

Philippe Dollinger associates the downfall of the Hansa to a new alliance between Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen, which outshadowed the older institution.[60] He further sets the date of dissolution of the Hansa at 1630[60] and concludes that the Hansa was almost entirely forgotten by the end of the 18th century.[61] Scholar Georg Friedrich Sartorius published the first monograph regarding the community in the early years of the 19th century.[61] Packard Bell Easynote TK85 laptop keyboard

The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks (Russian: Путь «из варяг в греки», Put iz varyag v greki, Swedish: Vägen från varjagerna till grekerna, Greek: Εμπορική Οδός Βαράγγων - Ελλήνων) was a trade route that connected Scandinavia, Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire. The route allowed traders along the route to establish a direct prosperous trade with Byzantium, and prompted some of them to settle in the territories of present-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. HP Mini 210-2006sa laptop keyboard

The route began in Scandinavian trading centres such as Birka, Hedeby, and Gotland, crossed the Baltic Sea entered the Gulf of Finland, followed the Neva River into the Lake Ladoga. Then it followed the Volkhov River, upstream past the towns of Staraya Ladoga and Velikiy Novgorod, crossed Lake Ilmen, HP Pavilion dv6-2147el laptop keyboard

and up the Lovat River. From there, ships had to be portaged to the Dnieper River near Gnezdovo. A second route from the Baltic to the Dnieper was along the Western Dvina (Daugava) between the Lovat and the Dnieper in the Smolensk region, and along the Kasplya River to Gnezdovo. Along the Dnieper, the route crossed several major rapids and passed through Kiev, and after entering the Black Sea followed its west coast to Constantinople. Compaq Presario CQ71-410ED laptop keyboard

The economic growth of Europe around the year 1000, together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, eased the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean. The growing independence of some coastal cities gave them a leading role in this commerce: Compaq Presario CQ71-410ED laptop keyboard

 Maritime Republics (Italian "Repubbliche Marinare") of Venice,Genoa, Amalfi, Pisa and Republic of Ragusa developed their own "empires" in the Mediterranean shores. From the 8th until the 15th century, they held the monopoly of European trade with the Middle East. The silk and spice trade, involvingspices, incense, herbs, ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

drugs and opium, made these Mediterranean city-states phenomenally rich. Spices were among the most expensive and demanded products of the Middle Ages. They were all imported from Asia and Africa. Muslim traders—mainly descendants of Arab sailors from Yemen and Oman—dominated maritime routes throughout the Indian Ocean, ACER NSK-H361D Laptop Keyboard

tapping source regions in the Far East and shipping for trading emporiums in India, westward to Ormus in Persian Gulf and Jeddahin the Red Sea. From there, overland routes led to the Mediterranean coasts. Venetian merchants distributed then the goods through Europe until the rise of the Ottoman Empire, that eventually led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, barring Europeans from important combined-land-sea routes. DELL PVDG3 Laptop Keyboard

As trade between India and the Greco-Roman world increased[62] spices became the main import from India to the Western world,[63] bypassing silk and other commodities.[64] The Indian commercial connection with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia during the 7th century and the 8th century.[65] DELL Inspiron 6400 Laptop Keyboard

The Abbasids used Alexandria, Damietta, Aden and Siraf as entry ports to India and China.[66] Merchants arriving from India in the port city of Aden paid tribute in form of musk, camphor, ambergris and sandalwood to Ibn Ziyad, the sultanof Yemen.[66] Moluccan products shipped across the ports of Arabia to the Near East passed through the ports of India andSri Lanka.[67] SONY VAIO VGN-N38Z/W laptop keyboard

Indian exports of spices find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150 AD), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century).[67] After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports, spices were sometimes shipped to East Africa, where they were used for many purposes, including burial rites.[67] GATEWAY M-6846 laptop keyboard

On the orders of Manuel I of Portugal, four vessels under the command of navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, continuing to the eastern coast of Africa to Malindi to sail across the Indian Ocean to Calicut.[68] The wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore; the Portuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade.[68] TOSHIBA 9J.N5682.701 laptop keyboard

The modern times saw development of newer means of transport and often controversial free trade agreements, which altered the political and logistical approach prevalent during the Middle Ages. Newer means of transport led to the establishment of new routes, and countries opened up borders to allow trade in mutually agreed goods as per the prevailing free trade agreement. Some old trading route were reopened during the modern times, although in different political and logistical scenarios.[69] TOSHIBA Satellite l25-s119 laptop keyboard

The entry of harmful foreign pollutants by the way of trade routes has been a cause of alarm during the modern times.[70] A conservative estimate stresses that future damages from harmful animal and plant diseases may be as high as 134 billion US dollars in the absence of effective measures to prevent the introduction of unwanted pests through various trade routes.[70] ACER NSK-H361D laptop keyboard

The 1844 Railway act of England compelled at least one train to a station every day with the third class fares priced at a penny a mile.[72] Trade benefited as the workers and the lower classes had the ability to travel to other towns frequently.[73] Suburban communities began to develop and towns began to spread outwards.[73] HP Pavilion dv6-2141ee laptop keyboard

The British constructed a vast railway network in India, but it was considered to serve a strategic purpose in addition to the commercial purpose.[74] The efficient use of rail routes helped in the unification of the United States of America.[75] SONY Vaio PCG-K45 laptop keyboard

The modern times saw nations struggle for the control of rail routes: The Trans-Siberian Railway was intended to be used by the Russian government for control of Manchuria and later China; the German forces wanted to establish Berlin-Baghdad Railway in order to influence the Near East; and the Austrian government planned a route from Vienna to Salonika for control of the Balkans.[75] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica (2002): SONY KFRMBA151B laptop keyboard

Railroads reached their maturity in the early 20th century, as trains carried the bulk of land freight and passenger traffic in the industrialized countries of the world. By the mid-20th century, however, they had lost their preeminent position. The private automobile had replaced the railroad for short passenger trips, SONY VAIO VGN-FS115Z laptop keyboard

while the airplane had usurped it for long-distance travel, especially in the United States. Railroads remained effective, however, for transporting people in high-volume situations, such as commuting between the centres of large cities and their suburbs, and medium-distance travel of less than about 300 miles between urban centres. COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

Although railroads have lost much of the general-freight-carrying business to semi-trailer trucks, they remain the best means of transporting large volumes of such bulk commodities as coal, grain, chemicals, and ore over long distances. The development of containerization has made the railroads more effective in handling finished merchandise at relatively high speeds. Compaq Presario CQ57 Series Laptop Keyboard

In addition, the introduction of piggyback flatcars, in which truck trailers are transported long distances on specially-designed cars, has allowed railroads to regain some of the business lost to trucking. GATEWAY NV-54 Laptop Keyboard

Networks, like the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail, became prominent in the United States with wagon trains gaining popularity as a mode of long distance overland transportation for both people and goods.[71] The Oregon-California routes were highly organized with planned rendezvous locations and essential supplies.[71] The settlers in the United States used these wagon trains - sometimes made up of 100 of more Conestoga wagons - for westward emigration during the 18th and the 19th centuries.[71] SONY VAIO VGN-FS742/W Laptop Keyboard

Among the challenges faced by the wagon route operators were crossing rivers, mountains and hostile Native Americans.[71]Preparations were also made according to the weather and protection of trade and travelers was ensured by a few guards on horseback.[71] Wagon freighting was also essential to American growth until it was replaced by the railroad and the truck.[71] HP 636376-001 Laptop Keyboard

A consistent shift from land based trade to sea based trade has been recorded since the last three millennia.[80] The strategic advantages of port cities as trading centers are many: they are both less dependent on vital connections and less vulnerable to blockages.[81] Oceanic ports can help forge trading relationships with other parts of the world easily.[81] TOSHIBA Satellite A205-S5823 Laptop Keyboard

Modern maritime trade routes - sometimes in the form of artificial canals like the Suez Canal - had visible impact on the economic and political standing of nations.[82] The opening of the Suez Canal altered British interactions with the colonies of the British Empire as the dynamics of transportation, trade and communication had now changed drastically.[82] TOSHIBA NSK-TAJ01 Laptop Keyboard

Other waterways, like the Panama Canal played an important role in the histories of many nations.[83]Inland water transportation remained significantly important even as the advent of railroads and automobiles resulted in a steady decline of canals.[84] Inland water transport is still used for the transportation of bulk commodities e.g. grains, coal, and ore.[85]  DELL NSK-DJD01 Laptop Keyboard

Waterway commerce was historically important to Europe, particularly to Russia.[84] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica (2002): "Russia has been a significant beneficiary. Not only have inland waterways opened vast areas of its interior to development, but Moscow-linked to the White, Baltic, Black, Caspian, and Azov seas by canals and rivers-has become a major inland port."[84] DELL Vostro 3450 Laptop Keyboard

Oil spills are recorded both in case of maritime routes and pipeline routes to the main refineries.[86] Oil spills, amounting to as much as 7.56 billion liters of oil entering the oceans every year, occur due to damaged equipment or human error.[86] ACER Aspire 5742 Laptop Keyboard

Air transport has become an indispensable part of modern society.[87] People have come to use air transport both for long and middle distances, with the average route length of long distances being 720 kilometers in Europe and 1220 kilometers in the US.[88] This industry annually carries 1600 million passengers worldwide, covers a 15 million kilometer network, and has an annual turnover of 260 billion dollars.[88] COMPAQ Presario C700 Laptop Keyboard

This mode of transportation links national, international and global economies, making it vital to many other industries.[88] Newer trends of liberalization of trade have fostered routes among nations bound by agreements.[88] One such example, the American Open Skies policy, led to greater openness in many international markets, but some international restrictions have survived even during the present times.[88] DELL Inspiron 8500 Laptop Keyboard

Express delivery through international cargo airlines touched US $20 billion in 1998 and, according to the World Trade Organization, is expected to triple in 2015.[89] In 1998, 50 pure cargo-service companies operated internationally.[89] HP 640436-001 Laptop Keyboard

Air transport partucularly favors light, expensive and small products: electronic media rather than books, for example, and refined drugs rather than bulk food. SAMSUNG N140 Laptop Keyboard

The economic importance of pipeline transport - responsible for a high percentage of oil and natural gas transportation - is often undermined by the general public due to the lack of visibility of this mode.[90] Generally held to be safer and more economical and reliable than the other modes of transport, this mode has many advantages over rival modes, such as trucks and railways.[90] Toshiba Satellite A200-1E1 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

Examples of modern pipeline transport include Alashankou-Dushanzi Crude Oil Pipeline andIran-Armenia Natural Gas Pipeline. International pipeline transport projects, like the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, presently connect modern nation states—in this case, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey—through pipeline networks.[91] Toshiba Satellite A105-S271 Laptop CPU Cooling Fan

In some select cases, pipelines can even transport solids, such as coal and other minerals, over long distances; short distance transportation of goods such as grain, cement, concrete, solid wastes, pulp etc. is also feasible.[90] TOSHIBA Satellite M645-S4070 Laptop Keyboard